Raising the baR with betteR saFFLOweR agROnOmy Agronomic information and safflower case studies Autumn 2010 safflowers better enhanced through productivity value increasing the of the australian industry 1 Photo: Nick Wachsmann Compiled by Grower involvement Sue Knights, SE Knights Consulting. The Advisory Group are grateful for the invaluable contribution of the following growers who allowed the publication of their crop Edited by production data for the betterment of the safflower industry; Sue Knights, SE Knights Consulting, Nick Wachsmann, James & Stuart Gall, Breil Jackson, David Jochinke, Ryan Millgate, Longerenong College, Don McCaffery, Industry & Investment NSW, Graeme Robertson, Brett Shepherd and Greg Weber. Maureen Cribb, GRDC, Trent Potter, SARDI. Available Authors Copies available from: www.australianoilseeds.com or Information in this document was provided by: Nick Wachsmann, [email protected] Longerenong College, Trent Potter, SARDI, Struan, Rebecca Byrne, or free phone 1800 110 044. Industry & Investment NSW, Moree East, Sue Knights, SE Knights Consulting. ISBN number: 978-1-921779-08-4 Acknowledgements Published: June 2010 – www.agri-mc.com.au The Better Oilseeds project was funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation and the Australian Oilseeds Federation. 2 The Better Safflower advisory group consisted of: Sue Knights, SE Knights Consulting, Perth, WA Trent Potter, SARDI, Struan, SA Nick Wachsmann, Longerenong College, Horsham, VIC Rebecca Byrne, Industry & Investment NSW, Moree East, NSW Don McCaffery, Industry & Investment NSW, Orange, NSW Bill Slattery, Devexco International Pty Ltd, Sydney, NSW Ian Mack, Adams Australia, Maitland, NSW Geoff Black, Cootamundra Oilseeds, Cootamundra, NSW Disclaimer: This document has been prepared in good faith on the basis of information available at the date of publication without any independent verification. Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information in this publication nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of this publication. GRDC will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on information in this publication. Products may be identified by proprietary or trade names to help readers identify particular types of products but this is not, and is not intended to be, an endorsement or recommendation of any product or manufacturer referred to. Front cover photograph: Sue Knights. Back cover; Field day at the 7th International Safflower Conference, Wagga Wagga Australia, 2008. Photograph: Sue Knights. RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2 INTRODUCTION AND THE BETTER OILSEEDS PROJECT 4 SUMMARY 5 BENEFITS OF SAFFLOWER IN AUSTRALIAN CROPPING ROTATIONS 6 HOW DOES SAFFLOWER COMPARE TO OTHER CROPS? CASE STUDY: Safflower - a viable oilseed alternative, Moree, NSW - James & Stuart Gall 7 THE PLANT 9 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 10 SUITABLE PRODUCTION AREAS 10 SOIL REQUIREMENTS 10 CASE STUDY: Safflower - a hard pan breaker, Walgett, NSW - Greg Weber 11 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS 13 CASE STUDY: Safflower - an entry crop, Kanagulk, Victoria - Graeme Robertson 15 VARIETIES 17 ESTABLISHMENT 17 NUTRITION 20 IRRIGATION 20 WEED CONTROL 20 CASE STUDY: Safflower - a tool for managing herbicide resistant weeds, Apsley, Victoria - Ryan Millgate 22 IMPORTANT DISEASES 24 MAJOR PESTS 25 CASE STUDY: Safflower - a pest deterring crop, Nyngan, NSW - Breil Jackson 25 HARVESTING 30 3 CASE STUDY: Safflower - an opportunity crop, Murra Warra, Victoria - David Jochinke 31 END USES, MARKETING AND DELIVERY STANDARDS 33 CASE STUDY: Safflower - a soil ameliorant, Kybybolite, South Australia - Brett Shepherd 36 KEY INDUSTRY CONTACTS 38 REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION 39 RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY INTRODUCTION THE BETTER OILSEEDS Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) originated in the Near East and PROJECT has been grown for centuries in China, India and North Africa. It is The Better Oilseed project was jointly funded by the Grains a multi-purpose species with many traditional uses. Preparations Research and Development Corporation and the Australian made from the florets are thought to benefit the circulatory system, Oilseeds Federation. The project provided much needed support whilst yellow and red dyes extracted from the florets were once for oilseed growers, aiming to lift the productivity of these crops used to colour food and clothing. Immature plants can be grazed ensuring critical mass, consistency of production and improved or stored as hay or silage, and some forms are used in fresh or seed quality. dried floral arrangements. Australian oilseed production peaked in 1999, but at a lower level The use of safflower as an oilseed dates back to Roman times and than what many analysts believed possible. In recent years, poor it has been used in India since the 1800s. However, it is only since seasons and/or lower prices have seen the area sown to oilseeds the crop was introduced into the United States in the 1930s that decline from the 1999 peak, with production disappearing from it has developed into the oilseed crop we know today. Safflower some traditional regions. is now grown in over 20 countries with the United States, India and Mexico accounting for around 70% of world production. This project examined ways to support the Australian oilseed Worldwide, safflower is a minor crop compared to other oilseeds. industry. The outcome was for the industry to improve the skill level Average production for the five-year period to 2008 was 0.78 of advisers and growers so that oilseeds could be produced more million tonnes, or about 0.3% of world soybean production. reliably in current climatic conditions. Safflower has been grown in Australia since the 1950s, initially The project commenced in 2006 and for the majority of its history to extract oil from seeds for use in the paint and resin industries. focused on canola, soybeans and sunflower. Safflower was a late Production expanded to 42,000ha by 1968, but then declined addition, being incorporated in 2009. due to drought and severe outbreaks of the disease Alternaria. the specific project aims were: Interest in oilseed production increased again when quotas on the use of vegetable oils for margarine production were abolished in 1. To capture existing knowledge and place relevant information 1976. The area sown to safflower in Australia peaked in 1979 at into an easily accessible website. 74,688ha. 2. To utilise and share the knowledge of existing successful The CSIRO released the cultivars Sironaria with resistance to growers with other growers in their regions. Alternaria and Sirothora with resistance to Phytophthora in 1987, but area of production has remained variable. In the 10 years to 3. To address common problems and issues through 2008, average annual area of production was 25,781ha, but this demonstrations and field days. These issues were identified has ranged from 3,600 to 45,000ha. Growers have indicated through a review and included production costs, rotation/ that this is historically due to many factors including unfavourable farming system benefits, weed/pest/disease management seasons, variable prices, limited cultivars, competition from other and decision support on when to grow an oilseed given a crops and a lack of information on growing safflower. range of seed prices and environmental conditions. Additional cultivars with higher oil content and increased disease 4. Regular forums and field days were used to engage growers resistance have been imported in recent years, mainly from the and advisers and get them thinking about the possibilities for USA. The predominant market for these cultivars is oil for human their farms and clients. consumption, with the remaining meal suitable for ruminants. White 5. The project also identified and highlighted ways that growers seeded cultivars can also be valuable when sold into birdseed could improve seed quality to make the industry more markets, but prices in this market can be volatile depending on competitive. supply and demand. Worldwide demand for vegetable oil is increasing as consumers seek healthier diets and including safflower in rotations can diversify cropping programs and help spread risk. With appropriate management safflower can produce satisfactory returns in many cereal growing regions of Australia, especially in wetter situations. Safflower is a versatile crop that can add considerable value to cropping systems by playing various strategic roles. This document describes the plant and collates available agronomic information into a guide for growing safflower in Australia, complemented with 4 grower case studies. The final section contains references and a list of key industry contacts. Better Safflower case study locations Photo: Sue Knights RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY SUMMARY Safflower is a versatile minor oilseed crop in Australia which offers a number of benefits to many cropping systems. This book presents the keys for successful safflower production and describes how safflower can be used as a strategic crop with contrasting roles in crop rotations illustrated with grower case studies. Safflower can be used in rotations to effectively break the lifecycle of cereal root diseases like take-all and crown rot. It has an extensive root system which can break up hard-pans and create channels in the soil profile facilitating air and water movement. The deep roots combined with a long growing season also dry soil at depth benefitting the management of soils prone to water logging and salinity. Compared to traditional winter crops like wheat or canola, the later sowing window of safflower increases options for the pre-sowing control of problem winter weeds, and provides opportunity to generate income from fields where seasonal conditions prevent the establishment of other winter crops. Safflower can also provide management flexibility to a cropping enterprise. The later sowing and harvest time of safflower suits some growers as peak demands on labour and machinery are spread over a longer period of time. Safflower fits well into cereal based cropping systems with no additional machinery being required. The crop may also be sown as an opportunity crop. In such situations it may be sown outside the optimum window with fewer inputs and still produce economic yields. Examples include sowing safflower in spring to replace failed winter crops. Regardless of the reason why safflower is incorporated into a cropping system it is recommended that growers adhere to as many keys to successful safflower production as possible to optimise the crops performance. Keys to successful safflower production: 1. As safflower requires more water than canola to produce comparable yields, ensure that moisture is available to at least 1m soil depth at sowing 2. Keep the market and end use in mind when selecting varieties and consider forward contracts if on farm storage is not available 3. Always use quality seed and do not sow too deep (1.5 to 4cm depth recommended) 4. Early sowing is important to maximise yields in drier situations (June or July) 5. In wetter situations in southern Australia, safflower can be sown much later (to mid spring) without significantly affecting yield (increase sowing rate for very late sowing) 6. Use moderate sowing rates, especially when early sowing in drier situations (9 to 18kg/ha) 7. Supply adequate nutrition (fertiliser) 8. Minimise waterlogging when irrigating safflower, and/or fill the soil profile before sowing 9. Select paddocks carefully as fewer herbicides are available for use in safflower than more widely grown crops (some permits are available) 10. Manage pests and weeds during establishment and early growth 11. Monitor crops regularly for pests 12. Harvest as soon as crops are mature and be careful to avoid seed damage reducing quality, and to avoid blocking equipment 13. Harvest during cooler conditions to improve cleanliness of seed and reduce the risk of fire 14. Consider on-farm storage of safflower to enable access to more lucrative markets 5 RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY BENEFITS OF SAFFLOWER IN PRODUCTION CHALLENGES AUSTRALIAN Despite the benefits of safflower in a range of farming systems, there are several factors which tend to result in lower yields making CROPPING SYSTEMS safflower a less popular crop. These include: • Late maturity, which exposes safflower to heat and moisture Safflower can be a valuable addition to cropping systems, providing stress at the end of the season (Figure 1). Sowing significantly a number of strategic, agronomic and financial benefits as well as earlier only brings maturity forward by a small amount and cash return, These benfits include: increases the risk of frost damage during stem elongation. A break crop • The upright seed heads are like a cup and easily saturated Diseases such as root and crown rot that attack wheat and by rain. Summer rain can therefore cause the staining of barley are carried from one cereal crop to the next on stubble, seed reducing its value and/or sprouting where ripe seeds volunteer crop plants and certain grass weeds. These diseases germinate in the head. are not hosted by safflower, so with good grass weed control the • In-crop herbicide options are limited, especially for the control population of these organisms is significantly reduced in safflower of broadleaf weeds. crops resulting in higher cereal yields in the following season. Safflower does not suffer from blackleg and is one of a few crops • The depletion of water from the soil profile by safflower can resistant to both species of root lesion nematodes. result in less water being available for the subsequent crop. A crop for enterprise diversification • As most cultivars develop spines, care needs to be taken to prevent blockages and header fires during harvest. In a cereal based enterprise, safflower can hedge growers against unpredictable weather. Because safflower can be planted later than cereals, it can be substituted for part of the cereal crop when planting rains begin too late for cereals, or where too much rain prevents their establishment. Excessive rain during cereal sowing and harvest can be detrimental to these crops, but may benefit safflower as its growing season is much later. This allows for a more diversified cropping program which has several advantages. For example, the later sowing and harvest of safflower spreads seasonal workloads, may reduce the exposure of crops to frost and the incorporation of another crop species increases the opportunity to rotate herbicide groups. Safflower’s late growing season can help mitigate the effect of spring frosts affecting cereals on the whole farm budget, thereby reducing risk. A drought tolerant crop Providing the soil profile is moderately wet at sowing, safflower can Figure 1: Safflower matures 4 to 6 weeks after wheat (photo yield reasonably well with little follow up rain because of its deep taken 31 December). In this example both crops were sown taproot. Safflower tolerates heat and drought better than most on 24 July in the Victorian Wimmera. Photo: Nick Wachsmann other crops and can survive for extended periods without rain. Key for successful safflower production: A tool for managing problem weeds No. 1: As safflower requires more water than canola to Safflower is often sown later than other winter crops allowing produce comparable yields, ensure that moisture is available more time for winter weeds to germinate before sowing. Such to at least 1m soil depth at sowing. weeds can then be controlled using knockdown herbicides or cultivation, minimising resistance to selective herbicides. Furthermore, compared to wheat, pre-emergent herbicides such as pendimethalin and trifluralin can be used at higher rates in safflower HOW DOES SAFFLOWER giving greater control of weeds like annual ryegrass and wild oats. COMPARE TO OTHER An entry crop and a soil ameliorant Safflower’s aggressive root system penetrates further into soil CROPS? than many other crops. The roots create channels in the subsoil The yield of oilseeds is generally lower than cereals due to the improving water and air movement as well as root development in higher energy content of the seed. When sown as a winter crop, subsequent crops. For this reason some growers use safflower as safflower can produce similar yields to canola but it requires 6 an entry crop in rotations. Safflower can also be used to dry wet additional water. For example, in an experiment in the Victorian soil profiles, such as after irrigated cotton. This facilitates the natural Wimmera, canola used 387mm of water to produce a yield of shrinking and cracking of compacted layers which can be further 3.4t/ha, whilst safflower used 507mm of water to produce shattered by deep ripping. 3.7t/ha of seed. In other words, the water use efficiency of A tool for managing salinity and waterlogging safflower is often less than canola. As safflower is a long season crop with a deep tap-root, it has the Where stored soil water and rainfall limit crop water use to less than ability to use surplus water from deep in the soil profile, lowering 300mm, canola, mustard or linseed are likely to be higher yielding watertables with dissolved salts reducing the expansion of saline winter oilseed options. However, in wetter situations safflower can seeps. Similarly, some growers use safflower to dry soil profiles to be competitive with these crops. Safflower generally requires fewer reduce waterlogging in subsequent crops. inputs and does not need to be windrowed. A pest deterring crop As a spring sown crop, safflower can perform similarly to sunflower Due to the prickly nature of safflower later in its growing season, and better than linseed. In cooler, high rainfall regions, such as safflower is occasionally grown in situations where other crops may the South East of South Australia traditional winter crops can also fail due to high kangaroo, bird or feral pig pressure. be sown in spring. Under these conditions safflower can produce It is relatively unpalatable to these animals and growers can achieve similar yields to canola and mustard and be more reliable. an economic return with minimal maintenance of the crop. RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY SAFFLOWER- A VIABLE OILSEED ALTERNATIVE Farmer case study MOREE, NSW Stuart, Jean & James Gall Enterprises: Broadacre cropping and cattle. Location: Moree, NSW. Property size: 6,800ha. Average annual rainfall/moisture availability: 550mm, approximately 113mm falls in-crop in an average season, with the majority of this rainfall occurring in late spring and summer, from stem elongation to flowering growth stages. Soil type: The dominant soils are black self-mulching clays. Jean Gall. Photo: Stuart Gall Soil pH : Ca Alkaline. Take home message Safflower is a viable alternative oilseed crop which aids machinery efficiency at sowing and harvest due to a later planting window. Safflower production checks • Market using hectare contracts • Avoid paddocks susceptible to waterlogging • Blow down headers every few hours to prevent field fires History of property ‘Tycannah Station’ was purchased by the Gall family in the 1800s and has since expanded in area and management systems from 4,400ha of predominantly sheep to the property it is today. Cropping was introduced in the mid 1990s when 300ha was cropped and this has now expanded to 4,800ha. Sheep were gradually phased out entirely, while cattle numbers remained consistent, and still account for 2000ha of ‘Tycannah Station’. This shift was largely due to market influences which saw a decline in wool prices. The grazing area of the property consists of native grasses and 160ha of the property is flood irrigated. Crop details The Galls have grown six safflower crops since 1995, ranging in size from 240ha to 350ha. Safflower was also grown in the 1970’s, but information about these crops was not well recorded. The cropping area of the property is equally divided into six block, which support sorghum, cotton, winter cereal (wheat/barley) and chickpeas, with safflower being incorporated into the cereal block when grown. Why grow safflower? Safflower is beneficial as a break crop to alleviate cereal disease carryover and increases opportunities to rotate chemical groups to minimise the risk of herbicide and pesticide resistance developing. The later sowing window also improves machinery efficiency at sowing and harvest by spreading workloads throughout the year. There is also opportunity to double crop out of sorghum into safflower, allowing a break crop without missing a season, providing adequate fallow rainfall occurs. An alternative crop such as safflower incorporated in the rotation also spreads market risk as prices fluctuate during the season. Negative aspects of growing safflower Safflower is susceptible to waterlogging, which can cause root rot diseases such as Phytophthora, potentially resulting in total loss of 7 the crop, as the Galls experienced in 1995. Soil tests at ‘Tycannah’ suggest that safflower utilises more zinc than other crops. The emergence of safflower can be slower than other crops. In the Gall’s experience, it can take up to six weeks for plants to emerge. Harvesting safflower can be a slow and dangerous process with regards to the risk of starting a field fire, and little stubble remains after harvest, reducing the effectiveness of retained stubble in conserving soil moisture in fallow. Because safflower is an alternative crop it requires niche marketing which can make the sale of seed problematic. Safflower markets are very sensitive to supply and demand. sowing window The management system the Galls use is to sow safflower as close as possible to the shortest day of the year (21 June). Paddock preparation In terms of inputs the Galls use the same paddock preparation methods as for wheat. RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY Sowing system and establishment. The Galls use either a disc or tine planter set to sow at 10kg/ha of seed in row spacings of 33, 38 or 102cm. Varieties Previously the Galls have grown various varieties of safflower, but mostly Saffola types. Crop nutrition The Galls have found safflower to have the same nutritional requirements as wheat, allthough zinc requirements appear higher, probably as a result of the soils characteristics. At sowing, generally MAP or urea is incorporated, depending on soil test results. Weed control Grass weeds are controlled using Verdict®, and broadleaf weeds have never been an issue for safflower on ‘Tycannah Station’. Problem weeds for safflower on the property are predominantly annual phalaris and wild oats. Herbicide resistance Herbicide resistance is not an issue for ‘Tycannah Station’. Insect management On observing the safflower crops over the years, the Galls have found the presence of large numbers of beneficial insects, such as spiders and ladybird beetles, and as such have never had to spray. This may be attributed to the fact that cotton was never grown in close proximity to the crops. Disease management The safflower disease of concern for the Galls is Phytophthora, which is managed simply by avoiding low lying paddocks which may remain wet for too long after rainfall. Harvest management Harvest usually occurs mid to late December, and the biggest concern is the risk of fire. To alleviate this hazard, harvest is conducted at night where possible, in cooler conditions and using slower drum speeds. Headers are also blown out every two hours during harvesting, as fires have occurred on the property previously. The Galls usually direct head safflower, and having never windrowed a crop, are unsure if any benefits would arise. A number of different machines have been used to harvest safflower over the years, utilising both conventional and belt header fronts. Management of safflower residue The Galls manage safflower stubble in the same manner as cereal stubble, as relatively small amounts are left behind after harvest. Volunteer safflower plants are few in number and controlled easily using regular fallow broadleaf herbicides. Cost of production As safflower requires similar nutrition and weed control to wheat, has low insecticide inputs and low disease management requirements, the crop cost is similar to wheat, although harvesting safflower is more expensive due to the slower header speed. Economic benefit from growing safflower As an alternative crop, safflower spreads marketing risk and often achieves a higher price than cereals per tonne at sale, however with an often smaller area of crop planted and lower average yields, returns from safflower are often similar to cereals. Reliability/robustness of safflower Safflower is a tough crop in most seasons but can be affected by a wet start to summer in northern NSW which can damage seed and reduce oil content. Crop compared to other crops Safflower for the Galls is a less management intensive crop than chickpea, but more intensive than wheat. Pests such as pigs and kangaroos do not graze safflower due to its unpalatability and spines. Pressure from such pests in other crops can be significant. 8 Crop yield Between 1995 and 2005, safflower yields have ranged from 0.75t/ha to 1.2t/ha, with an average of 0.94t/ha. RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY THE PLANT Safflower is an erect, winter/spring growing, annual herb that resembles a thistle. Along with sunflower, it belongs to the daisy plant family (Asteraceae). Despite being related to saffron thistle, safflower will not become a weed. Seeds have no dormancy and plants are easily controlled by cultivation and hormone herbicides. Cross-pollination between safflower and saffron thistle produces only sterile seed. After emergence, safflower plants slowly develop a rosette of basal leaves (Figure 2). As daylength and temperature increase, a fast growing, central, woody stem develops (Figure 3) reaching a maximum height around the time of flowering. Depending on variety, management and growing conditions, the maximum height is reached at the start of flowering and may be 30 - 150cm. A strong tap root begins to develop during the rosette stage and can penetrate deeper into the subsoil than many other crops. In one comparison, safflower roots were found to a depth of 2.1m while nearby wheat roots extended to only 1.4m. Figure 4: Early flowering stage of safflower Photo: Nick Wachsmann Leaves are arranged at both sides of the stem, often at uneven intervals. Leaf dimensions vary greatly between varieties and with distribution on individual plants. Typically leaves are 2.5 to 5cm wide and 10 to 15cm long. The margins of lower leaves range from being almost entire to deeply serrated and terminate with acuminate tips. Upper leaves forming the bracts that surround flowers are usually short, stiff, ovate to obovate and terminate in a spine. Upper leaves frequently also possess spines on the margins and whilst spineless varieties do exist they are not widely grown commercially. While the spines make the crop difficult to walk through, they also act as a deterrent to animals such as pigs and kangaroos. Buds are borne on the ends of branches (Figure 4) and each composite flower head (capitulum) contains 20-180 individual florets. Depending on variety, crop management and growing conditions, each plant can develop 3-50 or more flower heads of 1.25-4cm diameter. Flowering commences with terminal flower heads (central stem), followed sequentially by primary, secondary Figure 2: Rosette stage of safflower and sometimes tertiary branch flower heads. Individual florets Photo: Nick Wachsmann usually flower for 3-4 days and the whole flowering period can range from less than 10 days to more than 4 weeks. Commercial Lateral branches develop once stems are about 20 to 40cm varieties are largely self-pollinated with less than 10% outcrossing. high and these lateral branches may in turn branch to produce The amount of secondary and tertiary branches. The central main stem is often outcrossing is increased referred to as the terminal stem, with the first level of branching by the presence of known as primary branches. The extent of branching is dependent insect pollinators, but on variety, sowing rate and growing conditions. the presence of bees is unlikely to increase yield by more than 5%. Flowers are commonly yellow, orange or red, but white and cream forms also exist. Each flower head commonly contains 9 Figure 5: Safflower seed 15 to 50 seeds, but the Photo: Nick Wachsmann number can exceed 100. The seed Safflower seeds (Figure 5) are contained in a thick hull which in botanical terms is actually a type of fruit known as an achene. However, as with sunflower, most people refer to the whole unit as a seed, so the same will be done here. Depending on variety, hulls may be smooth or ridged, pure white or white with a grey or brown tinge, and/or possess purple, grey or black stripes. Hulls generally lack a pappus and where present, pappus hairs are usually short. The size of safflower seeds varies between varieties and with growing conditions, but they are shaped like small sunflower seeds. Typically, seeds average 6 to 7mm in length and weigh about 4 grams per 100 seeds, making 25,000 seeds per kilogram. The Figure 3: Stem elongation stage of safflower recognised test weight is 52.5kg/hL, which is similar to oats. Photo: Nick Wachsmann RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY GROWTH AND SUITABLE PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT AREAS Emergence and early growth In Australia, safflower production commenced in northern New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland, but this has since shifted Safflower normally emerges 1 to 3 weeks after sowing. It is slower to include the higher rainfall (>450mm) cereal growing regions of under low temperatures increasing the risk of insect damage and southern NSW, Victoria and South Australia. Safflower can be disease. Germination is epigeal, meaning that like canola or lupins, grown over a wide range of regions providing that severe frosts the shoot carrying the seed emerges above the soil where the (< -4°C) are avoided during stem elongation and that harvest can cotyledons expand and act as the first leaves. be completed before heavy summer rainfall events that occur after The first true leaves then emerge forming a rosette. During the the crop matures. Safflower has a relatively high water requirement rosette stage safflower can tolerate frosts to -7°C. Crops should be and is more reliable where stored soil water and rainfall allow total monitored for establishment pests such as redlegged earth mite crop water use to exceed 300mm between sowing and maturity. during this period. Traditional production areas include the deep cracking clay soils Growth during the rosette stage is initially slow it occurs in winter near Moree, Warren and Griffith in NSW, the Wimmera region with short daylengths and cold temperatures. This stage can last of Victoria and the area from Bordertown southwards in South for several weeks and varies with location and sowing date. For the Australia. same sowing date the length of the rosette stage is normally longer Safflower can also be grown successfully as an irrigated crop in southern Australia than northern Australia. in most river valleys and irrigation areas, such as the Hay Plain in NSW. Care needs to be taken to prevent waterlogging which Stem elongation and branching causes root rots such as Phytophthora, and some growers prefer With increasing temperature and daylength towards the end to fill the soil profile prior to sowing, producing the crop with no of winter and spring, plants grow more rapidly and the central additional irrigation. In some seasons, safflower is grown as an stem begins to elongate and branch. Frosts below -4°C at this opportunity crop on full profiles of soil water on flood plains or growth stage can cause stem splitting and death of the growing normally dry lake beds after flood water recedes. point. Whilst plants often recover to some extent by producing new shoots from below the damaged areas, yield is likely to be penalised. The number of branches produced is an important SOIL REQUIREMENTS determinant of yield as each branch eventually terminates in a While safflower can be grown on a range of soil types, it prefers flower head. Early sowing allows more time for a large rosette and deep neutral to alkaline soils that are well drained, but still have an extensive branch structure to develop, creating a high yield a high water holding capacity, eg deep clay loams. Fertile, deep potential. However, excessive vegetative growth increases crop black or grey, self mulching or cracking clays that allow full water use early in the season and can lead to the depletion of soil development of the root system are ideal. Loams and alluvial soils moisture before maturity, decreasing yield. Delayed sowing (eg are also satisfactory, but should be deep and free from hardpans, August) reduces the period of the rosette and branching growth compacted layers, hostile chemicals or elements so that the root stages. This results in fewer flower heads per plant lowering yield system can reach as deep into the profile as possible to extract potential, but can be partially overcome by increasing sowing rates. water. No-till farming systems with full stubble retention can A development scale for safflower is shown in Figure 6. increase the amount of water stored in soil profiles and therefore Flowering to maturity the reliability of safflower, providing that weeds can be controlled. Flowering generally coincides with wheat harvest in most cereal Soils that are prone to extended periods of waterlogging are growing areas. It is more influenced by daylength than by when the generally not suitable as they predispose crops to Phytophthora, crop was sown. The period from the end of flowering to maturity is an often fatal root disease of safflower. Soils that are prone to usually 4 weeks, so that safflower is normally ready to harvest 4 to crusting will reduce plant establishment and unless in high rainfall 6 weeks after wheat. areas, sandy soils may limit safflower production by having too low a water holding capacity. Paddocks with subsoil constraints like The need for long days before the crop will flower forces flowering boron that will impair root development should be avoided. and seed growth into a period of high temperatures and often dry conditions in late spring or early summer. Safflower can tolerate The salinity tolerance of safflower is moderate to high, being similar these conditions providing that demand for water can be supplied to barley or cotton. It is more tolerant of sodium, than calcium from soil reserves, but where these reserves are depleted low yields or magnesium salts and less tolerant as a seedling than at later can be expected. growth stages where yield is affected by levels above 14dS/m . Tolerance to salinity does differ between variety, As plants mature they become stiff and woody and therefore are soil extract but little information is available on the cultivars grown in Australia. reasonably tolerant of wind and hail. However, too much rain may Due to its deep taproot safflower is often used in a tactical role on reduce yield and oil quality by inhibiting pollination, discolouring 10 problem soils to break up hard pans and improve water and air seed, promoting disease and/or causing ripe seeds to sprout in the infiltration into the subsoil through the creation of pores. heads. The total period from sowing to harvest maturity varies with variety, location, sowing time and growing conditions but for June or July sowings may be around 26-31 weeks. Figure 6: The development of a safflower plant. Source: Kaffka and Kearney (1998). RAISING THE BAR WITH BETTER SAFFLOWER AGRONOMY