Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spa in Author: Salah Zaimeche IMPORTANT NOTICE: Chief Editor: Lamaan Ball All rights, including copyright, in the content of this document are owned or controlled for these purposes by FSTC Limited. In accessing these web pages, you agree that you may only download the content for your own personal non-commercial Release Date: December 2004 use. You are not permitted to copy, broadcast, download, store Publication ID: 4072 (in any medium), transmit, show or play in public, adapt or change in any way the content of this document for any other purpose whatsoever without the prior written permission of FSTC Limited. Copyright: © FSTC Limited, 2003 2004 Material may not be copied, reproduced, republished, downloaded, posted, broadcast or transmitted in any way except for your own personal non-commercial home use. Any other use requires the prior written permission of FSTC Limited. 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FSTC Limited takes no responsibility for the consequences of error or for any loss or damage suffered by readers of any of the information published on any pages in this document, and such information does not form any basis of a contract with readers or users of it. FSTC Limited 9 Conyngham Road, Victoria Park, Manchester, M14 5DX, United Kingdom Web: http://www.fstc.co.uk Email: [email protected] Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 GRANADA- THE LAST REFUGE OF MUSLIMS IN SPAIN In the nineteenth century, a French poet, Victor Hugo, exclaimed in a poem on Granada, included in his collection Les Orientales (1829): L'Alhambra! l'Alhambra! palais que les Genies Ont dore comme un reve et rempli d'harmonies...1 Meaning: Alhambra! Alhambra! Palace which the genii have adorned like a dream flowing with harmonies. The Alhambra palace is one of better known features of Granada’s Muslim legacy. It is not the only one. Granada was also a city of scholars. But it was most of all the last refuge of Muslims in Spain. After the loss of most of Muslim Spain, the loss of such places such as Cordova, lost to the Muslims in 1236, Valencia, lost in 1238, Murcia and the rest of Muslim Andalusia lost in the following years, and finally, and most critically the loss of the flower of Muslim civilization, Seville, which fell in 1248 to Alfonso of Castile, only Granada was left. It remained in Muslim hands until 1492, then, that year it too fell.2. The history of this loss will be described in the last part of this article. First, the history and cultural prosperity of Granada need to be described. Al Hambára Palace (Source http://mbravo.spb.ru/gallery/alhambra2/aag) Granada is the capital of the former Muslim kingdom of that name and one of the major cities of Muslim Andalusia. It is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada some 689 meters above sea level. The city was 1 In John Sweetman: The Oriental Obsession: Cambridge University Press, 1987. p. 120. 2 For the best simplified history of Muslim Spain, and the fall of Granada, see S. Lane-Poole: The Moors in Spain; Fisher Unwin; London; 1888; see also H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; Burt Franklin; New York; 1968 reprint. Publication ID: 4072 Page 2 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 built on three hills, two of which are separated by a deep ravine through which the Darro River (Arabic: Hadarru) flows, covered for much of its length by broad bridges.3 The three major sections of the city are the Antequeruela (named after refugees from Antequeruela who settled there in 1410). This section is enclosed by the Darro River, with the Alhambra section to the west. The other section is the Albaicin (from rabad al- hayazf, or “falconers' quarter”, although one tradition connects the name with refugees from Baeza who fled there in 1245, after Christians captured their home town). This is the oldest quarter, and was much favoured by Muslim nobles, located to the northwest, on the other side of the Darro; and in Granada proper.4 From the walls of Granada the Mountains of the Sierra Nevada Granada’s illustrious past is inextricably linked with the Muslims. Following the Muslim conquest in the early eighth century, it was governed by the Umayyad caliphate at Damascus and later came to be known as the Damascus of the West. After 1031 the Zirid ruler Zawl established an independent kingdom here5. The increasing prosperity of Granada under Almohad rule made it, by about 1200, the fifth largest city in Spain, with a population of Arab, Spanish, and Berber Muslims, Spanish Christians, and Jews living in 3 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; Dictionary of the Middle Ages; Joseph Strayer Editor in Chief; Charles Scribners’ Sons; New York; 1980 fwd;. 651-3; at p. 651. 4 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; at p. 651. 5 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 651. Publication ID: 4072 Page 3 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 separate quarters6. Ibn Sa'îd, a thirteenth-century writer from Alcalá la Real (Granada), remarked that no eastern cities reminded him of home except for Damascus and Hama, a central Syrian town, and al- Shaqundî called Granada the Damascus of al-Andalus.7 Indeed, despite all the upheavals around, with the Muslim Spanish realm being lost one large stretch of land after the other, Granada remained prosperous. A brief period of insurrection between 1229 and 1238 brought a scion of the Banu Hud from Saragossa to power. He ruled Granada as part of a larger kingdom stretching from Algeciras to Almeria, but he was defeated by Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar, prince of Jaen, who seized the city and founded the Nasrid dynasty there in 1248, becoming lord of Malaga and Almeria at the same time.8 He was going to be the first of a line of twenty-one Nasrid sovereigns who maintained the independence of Granada until 1492, when the city, the last surviving outpost of Muslim Spain succumbed to the Spanish Catholic monarchy, on which more information is given further on9. For the duration of its history, Granada was marked by a considerable cultural life, whose main aspects are described now. Cultural and scholarly Granada Granada produced a large number of scholars. The names of the best known are included here: Al-Mazini al-Andalusi al-Gharnati was born in 1080-1081 in Granada; died in 1169-1170 in Damascus. An Hispano-Muslim geographer, in 1114-1115 he was in Egypt, but he must have returned to his country not long afterwards; in 1117 he left Spain, sailing to Egypt via Sardinia and Sicily; in 1122-1126, he was in Baghdad; in 1130 in Abhar, Jibal; in 1131 at Sakhein (or Saqsin) on the Upper Volga—he spent many years in that region.10 In 1135-1136 he was in Bulghar (near Kazan, on the Volga); in 1150-1151 in Bashgird, Hungary, in 1160 in Baghdad; after that he resided in various places in Khurasan and Syria— for example, in 1162 he was in Mosul. He died in Damascus in 1169-1170.11 Travel to the East was very common among Andalusi fuqahâ' (scholars of Islamic laws), and it was typical to read in a biographical account that a man had travelled in the lands of the East (tâfa bilâd al-mashriq) and that he had done so "in search of knowledge" (fîtalab al-'ilm).12 To a certain extent, the pilgrimage destination of Mecca determined the places visited (e.g., Qayrawân, Alexandria, Cairo, all places with scholarly communities), but the search for specialized knowledge deflected scholars to, for example, Basra and other Iraqi centres to study subjects such as grammar.13 Al-Mazini, was a contemporary of another illustrious geographer, al-Idrisi, born before him, and dying three years after him. Al-Mazini was more of a cosmographer in the old Islamic way than a systematic geographer, yet he gives information which is unobtainable anywhere else. He wrote various geographical works: (1) in Baghdad in 1160, Al-mughrib 'an bad. 'ajaib al-Maghrib (Collection of singularities relative to some of the marvels of the Maghrib); (2) in Musul in 1162, Tuhfat al-albab wa nukhbat al-a'jab (Gift to the 6 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 652. 7 T. Glick: Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1979. pp 55-6. 8 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 652. 9 See S. Lane-Poole: The Moors in Spain; Fisher Unwin; London; 1888; H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; Burt Franklin; New York; 1968 reprint. 10 G. Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science; The Carnegie Institution; Washington; vol 2; p. 412. 11 G. Sarton: Introduction; 2; p. 412. 12 T. Glick: Islamic and Christian Spain; op cit; p. 285. 13 T. Glick: Islamic and Christian Spain; p. 285. Publication ID: 4072 Page 4 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 hearts and choice of wonders); (3) Nukhbat al-adhan fi 'aja'ib al-buldan; (4) 'Aja'ib al-makhluqat (Wonders of the creatures).14 It would seem that 3 and 4 are completely or partly identical with 1 and 2. His accounts of foreign countries are largely anecdotal and include many fables. The Tuhfat is divided as follows: Introduction; (1) general description of the world and its inhabitants, men and jinn; (2) singularities of various countries, (3) seas and islands, extraordinary animals living in them; (4) caverns, fossils, etc.15 After many years of travel he settled down in the Near East-as much as a restless person of his type could settle down anywhere - and finally died in Damascus.16 Ibn Tufayl is another well known scholar from Granada. He was an Hispano - Muslim scientist and physician. He was born about 1100-1110 in Wadi Ash, modern Guadix, northeast of Granada. He was a physician in Granada; later secretary to the governor of the province; in 1154-1155 he became a secretary to the governor of Ceuta and Tangier; finally he worked as physician to the Almohad Abu Ya'qub Yusuf I (sultan 1163-1184). Ibn Tufayl was among the illustrious scholars who lived and worked in the Almohad court, especially under the third Caliph, Abu Yaqub, where they constituted a sort of corporation presided by one amongst them.17 Alongside Ibn Tufayl were Ibn Rushd and Ibn Zuhr, and many more scientists and scholars found sanctuary and served the Almohad rulers.18 When old age obliged Ibn Tufayl to resign his position at the service of the Almohad rulers in 1182-1183, he was succeeded by his friend Ibn Rushd.19 He died in Marrakech in 1185- 1186. Ibn Tufail wrote one of the most original books of the Middle Ages, a philosophical romance called after its hero, Haiy ibn Yaqzan. 20 The story itself includes a sketch of a natural classification of the sciences, a discussion of spontaneous generation, and miscellaneous scientific information. It was translated into Hebrew, and Moses ibn Joshua of Narbonne (second half of the fourteenth century) wrote a commentary upon it in 1349.21 Ibn Tufail wrote two medical treatises, and gave advice to Ibn Rushd with regard to the latter's commentaries and to his Kulliyat a tib, which was known as collegiate in the Latin world.22 It was he who suggested to al-Bitruji the latter's modification of the theory of homocentric spheres.23 A large number of Muslim scholars transited between Granada and North Africa. The historian Ibn Khaldun, the philologist Abu Hayyan, Ibn Battuta, and the vizier-cum-litterateur Ibn al-Khatib frequented this court.24 14 For more on Al-Mazini, see: Gabriel Ferrand: Le Tuhfat al-albab edite d'apres les MSS. 2167, 2168, 2170, de la Bibliotheque Nationale, et le MS. d'Alger (Journal Asiatique, vol. 207, 1-148, 193-304, 1925) Arabic text followed by an analysis, partial translation and notes; this is not yet the complete edition which we need, but it brings us much nearer to it (Isis, 11, 424). Haji Khalifa: Lexicon (vol. 2, 222, no. 2548, 1837; vol. 4, 189, no. 8072, 1845; the author's name is written differently in each note). J. T. Reinaud: Geographie d'Aboulfeda (vol. 1, cxi-cxiii, 1848). 15 G. Sarton: Introduction; op cit; 2; p. 412. 16 G. Sarton; ii; p. 300. 17 G. Deverdun: Marakech; Editions Techniques Nord Africaines; Rabat; 1959.p. 261. 18 R. Landau: Morocco: Elek Books Ltd, London 1967. p. 431. 19 G. Sarton: Introduction; op cit; II; pp. 354-5. 20 G. Sarton: Introduction II; pp. 354-5. 21 G. Sarton: Introduction II; pp. 354-5. 22 In 1255, in Padua, Italy, Bonacossa translated the Kulliyat (The Book of generalities (on medicine) of Ibn Rushd into Latin from Arabic in 1255. 23 G. Sarton: Introduction II; op cit; pp. 354-5. 24 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; op cit; p. 653. Publication ID: 4072 Page 5 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 The passport given to the great scholar Ibn-Khaldun by Mohammed V., King of Granada, was interestingly written in rhyme.25 Ibn-al-Khatib, of Granada, whose marvellous erudition was displayed in the greatest of his works: The Universal Library; an immense epitome of the literary and historical facts obtainable in his time.26 Besides their patronage of the arts, literature, and science, the Nasrid sultans cultivated a consciously Islamic civilization27 where women had their share of participation, too. Hence, Zainab and Hamda, the daughters of Zaid, the bookseller who lived at wadi al-Hima in the neighbourhood of Granada, were both ‘excellent poetesses, thoroughly versed in all branches of learning and science.’28 The second reign of Muhammad V (1362-1391) witnessed the apogee of Nasrid culture in Granada, when much of the Alhambra was built; silks and other textiles of unsurpassed quality were widely exported; irrigation and agriculture flourished as never before.29 But it was earlier, in 1248, that Muhammad ibn al- Ahmar (1232-73) ordered the erection of Spain's most famous edifice, the Alhambra (i.e., ‘the red’).30 The date of the construction of the Alhambra very probably dates from even earlier. The dates mentioned here are, however, the more certain ones. Regardless, the chosen site was a mountain crag bounded by deep ravines, and looking down upon two rivers, the Darro and the Genil. The Emir found there a fortress, the Alcazaba, dating from the ninth century; he added to it, built the great outer walls of the Alhambra and the earlier of its palaces, and left everywhere his modest motto: '`There is no conqueror but Allah." 31 The immense structure has been repeatedly extended and repaired. Following the principles of military architecture as developed in Eastern Islam, the unknown architect designed the enclosure first as a fortress capable of holding 40,000 men.32 The more luxurious taste of the next two centuries gradually transformed this fortress into a complex of halls and palaces, nearly all distinguished by unsurpassed delicacy of floral or geometrical decoration, carved or stamped in coloured stucco, brick, or stone. In the Court of the Myrtles a pool reflects the foliage and the fretted portico.33 Behind it rises the battlemented Tower of Comares, where the besieged thought to find a last and impregnable place of refuge. Within the tower is the ornate Hall of the Ambassadors; here the emirs of Granada sat enthroned, while foreign emissaries marvelled at the art and wealth of the tiny kingdom; here Charles V, looking out from a balcony window upon the gardens, groves, and stream below, mused, "How ill-fated the man who lost all this!',34 In the main courtyard, the Patio de los Leones, a dozen marble lions guard a majestic alabaster fountain; the slender columns and flowered capitals of the surrounding arcade, the stalactite archivolts, the Kufic lettering, the time-subdued tints of the filigree arabesques, make this the masterpiece of the ‘Morisco style’.35 Perhaps in their, enthusiasm and their luxury the Muslim architects and artists here pressed their art beyond elegance to excess; where all is ornament, the eye and soul grow weary even of beauty and skill. This building has 25 S.P. Scott: History of the Moorish Empire; The Lippincot Company; Philadelphia; 1904; vo III; p. 446. 26 S.P. Scott; III; p. 458. 27 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; op cit; p. 653. 28 Sayid Amir'Ali: A Short History of the Saracens, (569 at foot) in A. Shalaby: History of Muslim Education. Beirut: Dar al Kashaf, 1954., p. 28. 29 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; op cit; p. 653. 30 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; Simon and Shuster, New York; 6th printing; 1950. p. 316. 31 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; p. 316. 32 W. Irving: The Alhambra; 1832; 47. 33 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; p. 316. 34 S. Lane Poole: Moorish; op cit; 225. 35 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; op cit; p. 316. Publication ID: 4072 Page 6 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 survived a dozen earthquakes; the ceiling of the Hall of the Ambassadors fell, but the rest remained.36 In sum this picturesque ensemble of gardens, palaces, fountains, and balconies suggests both the climax and the decay of Muslim art in Spain: a wealth gone to extravagance, a conquering energy relaxed into a flair for ease, a taste for beauty that has subsided from power and grandeur to elegance and grace.37 In the nineteenth century, a new wave of travel literature swept over Europe in the decades after Waterloo, culminating in one of the most widely read books of the century: The Alhambra (1832) by Washington Irving. Al Hambra Decoration (Source http://mbravo.spb.ru/gallery/alhambra2/aau) This understandably went through numerous editions in the land of its author: from the time of the welcoming review in the New York Mirror in June of the year of publication its success was assured.38 It is 36 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; p. 316. 37 W. Durant: The Age of Faith; p. 316. 38 John Sweetman: The Oriental Obsession; op cit; pp.217-8. Publication ID: 4072 Page 7 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 of some significance that Mrs L.C. Tuthill in her History of Architecture from the Earliest Times (Philadelphia 1848) has, as Gerald Bernstein noted, five pages on `Arabian Architecture' of which three consist of direct quotations from Irving's book.39 This may suggest a relative scarcity in America of Owen Jones's book on the Alhambra which, the New World apart, was circulating badly enough in Britain, no doubt in part because of its bulk. But then Irving's volume, lacking in visual analysis yet replete with romantic narrative, scored heavily on a number of counts: small size, comparative cheapness, and human content.40 Alcazar de Genil (source http://www.legadoandalusi.es/itinerarios/it7/eng/circuitos7.htm ) The same man, Washington Irving also wrote a great work on the conquest of Granada,41 and also left us memorable lines of his trip to the place. Thus, in one of his letters date May 28, 1828, he says: `The Arab conquest brought a higher civilisation and a nobler style of thinking into Gothic Spain. The Arabs were a quick witted, sagacious, proud-spirited, and poetical people, and were imbued with Oriental science and literature. Wherever they established a seat of power, it became a rallying place for the learned and ingenious; and they softened and refined the people whom they conquered.’42 and: `They (the Muslims) deserved this beautiful country, for they won it bravely, and they enjoyed it generously and kindly… Everywhere I meet traces of their sagacity, courage, urbanity, high poetical feeling, and elegant taste. The noblest institutions in this part of Spain, the best inventions for 39 John Sweetman: The Oriental Obsession pp.217-8. 40 John Sweetman: The Oriental Obsession pp.217-8. 41 W. Irving: The Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada; Geoffrey Crayon Edition; New York; 1850. 42 W. Irving: The Spanish Papers; Riverside Edition; Philadelphia, 1868; pp. 519-20. Publication ID: 4072 Page 8 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 comfortable and agreeable living, and those attitudes and customs which throw a peculiar and Oriental charm over the Andalusian mode of living may be traced to the Moors.’43 The Muslim legacy of Granada spread widely in space and time. Muslim construction skills also meant that architects from Granada were employed by Castilian monarchs in the construction of palaces, and even by orthodox prelates in the ornamentation of cathedrals.44 But it was not the only form of legacy. Much of the Muslim legacy has been victim to time and upheavals of all sorts, but traces of this splendour survive. The Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo is a bijou thirteenth-century villa set in beautiful gardens; the Alcazar de Genil was built in the mid fourteenth century as a palace for the Nasrid queens. Several other examples of Nasrid domestic architecture survive.45 The Casa del Cabildo Antigua has as its core a fourteenth-century college founded by Yusuf I, and beneath the modern restorations of the Corral del Carbon may be discerned a Muslim inn, Alhondiga gedida (al- funduq- al-jadid, the new inn).46 Some of the nine original Muslim bridges over the Darro were incorporated into the urban fabric when the river was partially covered; the best-preserved of them is the Puente del Genil (qantarat Shanfl). The Church of S. Maria occupies the site of the Great Mosque, the Church of S. Ana was also originally a mosque, and the towers of the churches of S. Jose and S. Juan de los Reyes utilize minarets.47 The covered market now known as Alcaiceria (al-qaysarrya) was burned down in 1843 but was rebuilt using the original pillars. Nearby is the Bibarrambla Plaza (rabbat Bab al-Ramla, "Sand Gate"), which in medieval times was the scene of tournaments, feuds, and a form of bullfighting, there are also two Muslim baths, including the "Nut-tree Bath," Bano del Nogal, near the eleventh-century Puente del Alcalde (qantaratal- qadi), "Bridge of the Judge").48 43 W. Irving: Letters; vol ii; (1823-38); Edited by Ralph M. Aderman; Herbert. L. Kleinfield and Jennifer. S. Bank; Boston; 1979; p. 315. 44 S.P. Scott: History; op cit; vol 2; p. 22. 45 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; op cit; at p. 653. 46 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 653. 47 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 653. 48 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; p. 653. Publication ID: 4072 Page 9 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004 Granada- The Last Refuge of Muslims in Spain December 2004 The Loss of Granada and the end of Muslims in Spain Scores of people know that the Muslims lost Spain. Most, however, are aware of little about the crucial phases of this loss and fall. Many believe the whole of Spain was lost in 1492. Many more confuse the various parts and dates, and their history. Nearly everyone questions themselves on where have the Muslims of Spain gone, and when did they disappear. The following outline enlightens on such issues, but does it as briefly as possible. Soon after the death of the great leader al-Mansur (1005), Muslim Spain fell into chaos, the era of the ‘party kings' (reyes de taifas, muluk at-tawa'if) (1009-1091), when the Peninsula broke into as many as thirty independent rulers, who fought each other.49 Profiting from this, Christian princes in North West Spain swept south, conquering one Islamic kingdom after the other, very often using one against the other.50 In panic some Reyes called the Almoravids of Morocco, and their leader Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, who had to assist them on three occasions, each time after crushing the Christian armies, he was asked to leave Spain, to be re-called once the Reyes were threatened again. The third time he was invited again, in 1090, Ibn Tashfin crossed the straight of Gilbraltar from Morocco, and this time eliminated the inept Reyes, and installed Almoravid rule all over the country. Under Almoravid rule not just was the unity of the Muslim Peninsula restored, but also there re-appeared in the West a combative form of Islam that responded to the Christian combativeness.51 When Almoravid power subsided, the Almohads came to the fore in 1147. Their most decisive victory was on 18th July, 1196, when they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christian alliance of many armies at Alarcos, the Christian army being virtually exterminated.52 However, once their rule became ridden with internal rivalries, the Almohads were themselves crushed at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, a defeat which Lewis rightly recognised, `broke the back of Muslim power in the Peninsula.’53 It was not just that, for Muslims were engaged in fighting each other, too, and often siding with Christian kings against other Muslims. Hence, Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar of Granada became a vassal of Ferdinand I of Castile, contracting to pay him a large annual tribute, and even helping him to conquer the Muslim principality of Seville.54 Following this, Cordova fell in 1236, Seville fell in 1248, and soon the other towns and cities followed, only leaving Granada in Muslim hands. Abul-Beka, of Ronda, Ibn-al-Lebburn, of Murviedro, and Ibn-al-Khatib, of Granada, described, in language of inexpressible beauty and pathos, the national calamities inflicted by Christian supremacy,—the dissolution of empire, the desecration of the sanctuary, the dismemberment of families, the exile of the vanquished and the horrors of servitude. 55 For a couple of centuries, while the Spanish monarchs were busy in their rivalries, Granada remained independent in Muslim hands, it was the last beacon of Muslim civilisation in the Christian West. Granada 49 For details on the rule of al-Mansur and the break up of the kingdom see S.P. Scott: History ; op cit;. 50 S.P. Scott: History; Vol 1; p.453 fwd. 51 C. Cahen: Orient et Occident au temps des Croisades, Aubier Montaigne, 1983. p.21. 52 John Glubb: A Short History of the Arab Peoples; Hodder and Stoughton, 1969. p.190. 53 B. Lewis: Cultures in Conflict; Oxford University Press; 1995. p. 19. 54 R. Hillenbrand: Granada; op cit; p. 652. 55 S.P. Scott: History; op cit; vol III; p. 450. Publication ID: 4072 Page 10 of 20 COPYRIGHT © FSTC Limited 2003, 2004