Grammar of 4 Spoken Written and English Douglas Biber Stig Johansson Geoffrey N. Leech Susan Conrad Edward Finegan John Benjamins Publishing Company Grammar of Spoken and Written English Grammar of Spoken and Written English Douglas Biber Stig Johansson Geoffrey N. Leech Susan Conrad Edward Finegan John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia 'The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi 239.48-1984. DOI IO.IO75/Z.232 Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from Library of Congress: LCCN 2021009616 (PRINT) / 2021009617 (E-BOOK) ISBN 978 90 272 0796 8 (HB) ISBN 978 90 272 6047 5 (E-BOOK) © 2021 - John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Co. • https://benjamins.com Table of contents Abbreviations and symbols xi Preface xiii Symbols and notational conventions xvii Section A. Introductory 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3 1.1 Introduction 4 1.1.1 Major goals of the GSWE 5 1.2 Structure and use in English grammar 6 1.2.1 Register distribution 9 1.2.2 Lexico-grammatical patterns 13 1.2.3 Grammatical/discourse factors 14 1.3 Varieties of English 15 1.3.1 Registers of English 15 1.3.2 Dialect distinctions 17 1.3.3 Standard and non-standard English 18 1.3.3.1 Variation within standard English 18 1.3.3.2 Variation within non-standard English 20 1.3.4 The relative importance of register and dialect differences 21 1.4 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus 25 1.4.1 Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 25 1.4.2 Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus 26 1.4.3 Size of the LSWE Corpus 27 1.4.4 Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus 27 1.5 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus 29 1.5.1 Conversation 29 1.5.2 Fiction 30 1.5.3 News 31 1.5.4 Academic prose 33 1.5.5 Supplementary registers 34 1.6 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus 35 1.7 Quantitative findings in the grammar 38 1.8 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings 41 1.8.1 Function as the performance of tasks 41 1.8.2 Function as a reflection of processing constraints 43 1.8.3 Function as social or situational indexing 43 1.8.4 Other explanatory considerations 44 1.9 Overview of the grammar 44 1.10 Potential users and uses of the GSWE 45 vi Grammar of Spoken and Written English Section B. Basic grammar 49 Chapter 2. Word and phrase grammar 51 2.1 The nature of grammatical units 52 2.2 Words and their characteristics 53 2.2.1 Word types and word tokens 54 2.2.1.1 Use of words in text examples 54 2.2.1.2 TTR across the registers 55 2.2.2 Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes 56 2.2.3 The three major word classes 57 2.2.3.1 Lexical words 57 2.2.3.2 Function words 57 2.2.3.3 Inserts 58 2.2.4 Closed systems v. open classes 58 2.2.5 The structure of words: Morphology 59 2.2.5.1 Inflection 59 2.2.5.2 Derivation 60 2.2.5.3 Compounding 60 2.2.5.4 Multi-word lexical units 61 2.2.6 Core v. peripheral members of word classes 61 2.2.7 Multiple class membership 62 2.2.8 Use of lexical words, function words, and inserts 63 2.2.9 Lexical density 64 2.3 Survey of lexical words 64 2.3.1 Nouns 65 2.3.2 Lexical verbs 65 2.3.3 Adjectives 66 2.3.4 Adverbs 66 2.3.5 Lexical word classes 67 2.3.6 Borderline cases of lexical word class membership 69 2.4 Survey of function words 71 2.4.1 Determiners 72 2.4.2 Pronouns 72 2.4.2.1 Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes 73 2.4.2.2 Other pro-forms 74 2.4.3 Primary auxiliaries 75 2.4.4 Modal auxiliaries 75 2.4.5 Prepositions 76 2.4.5.1 Free v. bound prepositions 76 2.4.5.2 Complex prepositions 77 2.4.5.3 Overlap between prepositions and other word classes 78 2.4.6 Adverbial particles 80 2.4.6.1 Adverbial particles v. adverbs 80 2.4.6.2 Adverbial particles v. prepositions 80 Table of contents vii 2.4.7 Coordinators 81 2.4.7.1 Correlative coordinators 82 2.4.7.2 Coordinators v. other word classes 82 2.4.7.3 Simple coordinators: Distribution 83 2.4.7.4 Sentence/turn-initial coordinators 86 2.4.7.5 Correlative coordinators: Distribution 88 2.4.8 Subordinators 88 2.4.8.1 Complex subordinators 88 2.4.8.2 Correlative subordinators 89 2.4.8.3 Overlap between subordinators and other word classes 89 2.4.9 Wh-words 90 2.4.10 Existential there 91 2.4.11 The negator not 91 2.4.12 The infinitive marker to 92 2.4.13 Numerals 92 2.4.13.1 Cardinals 92 2.4.13.2 Ordinals 93 2.4.13.3 Numerals: Distribution 93 2.4.14 Major function word classes: Distribution 94 2.5 Survey of inserts 97 2.6 Phrases and their characteristics 98 2.6.1 Constituency 98 2.6.2 Form v. syntactic role of phrases 99 2.6.3 Phrases in text samples 99 2.7 Types of phrases 101 2.7.1 Noun phrases 101 2.7.1.1 The syntactic roles of noun phrases 102 2.7.1.2 Discontinuous noun phrases 104 2.7.2 Verb phrases 104 2.7.2.1 The syntactic role of verb phrases 105 2.7.2.2 Discontinuous verb phrases 105 2.7.2.3 Auxiliary-only verb phrases 105 2.7.3 Adjective phrases 106 2.7.3.1 The syntactic roles of adjective phrases 106 2.7.3.2 Discontinuous adjective phrases 106 2.7.4 Adverb phrases 107 2.7.4.1 The syntactic roles of adverb phrases 107 2.7.5 Prepositional phrases 108 2.7.5.1 Extended prepositional phrases 108 2.7.5.2 The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases 109 2.7.5.3 Stranded prepositions 109 2.7.5.4 Stranded prepositions in independent wh-questions 110 2.7.6 Genitive phrases 113 viii Grammar of Spoken and Written English 2.7.7 Numeral phrases 113 2.7.7.1 Complex numbers 114 2.7.7.2 Types of numerical expressions 114 2.7.7.3 Approximate numbers 116 2.7.7.4 Approximating numeral expressions 117 2.8 Embedding of phrases 117 2.9 Coordination of phrases 118 2.9.1 Phrasal v. clausal coordination 119 2.9.2 Coordination tags 120 2.9.2.1 Distribution of coordination tags 120 2.10 Simple v. complex phrases 121 Chapter 3. Clause grammar 123 3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material 124 3.1.1 Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples 124 3.2 Major clause elements 126 3.2.1 Subject (S) 127 3.2.1.1 Semantic roles of subjects 128 3.2.1.2 Dummy subjects 129 3.2.1.3 Subjects in non-finite clauses 129 3.2.2 Verb phrase (V) 130 3.2.3 Subject predicative (Ps) 130 3.2.4 Direct object (Od) 130 3.2.4.1 Semantic roles of direct objects 131 3.2.4.2 Dummy objects 132 3.2.5 Indirect object (Oi) 132 3.2.6 Prepositional object (Op) 133 3.2.7 Object predicative (Po) 134 3.2.8 Adverbials (A) 134 3.2.8.1 Circumstance adverbials (Ac) 135 3.2.8.2 Stance adverbials (As) 135 3.2.8.3 Linking adverbials (Ai) 137 3.2.9 The operator 137 3.3 Clause links 138 3.4 Peripheral elements 140 3.4.1 Detached predicatives and related forms 141 3.4.2 Parentheticals 141 3.4.3 Prefaces 142 3.4.4 Tags 143 3.4.5 Discourse markers 144 3.4.6 Vocatives 144 3.5 Major clause patterns 145 3.5.1 Subject - verb phrase 145 3.5.2 Subject - verb phrase - obligatory adverbial 147 Table of contents ix 3.5.3 Subject - verb phrase - subject predicative 149 3.5.3.1 The characterizing pattern 149 3.5.3.2 The identifying pattern 150 3.5.4 Subject - verb phrase - direct object 150 3.5.5 Subject - verb phrase - prepositional object 152 3.5.6 Subject - verb phrase - indirect object - direct object 154 3.5.7 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - prepositional object 154 3.5.8 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - object predicative 154 3.5.9 Subject - verb phrase - direct object - obligatory adverbial 155 3.5.10 More complex patterns 156 3.6 Variations on clause patterns 156 3.6.1 Order variations 156 3.6.1.1 Inversion 156 3.6.1.2 Fronting 156 3.6.1.3 Postponement 157 3.6.2 The passive 157 3.6.3 Existential there 158 3.6.4 Extraposition 158 3.6.5 Clefting 158 3.6.6 Condensation 159 3.7 Ellipsis 159 3.7.1 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses 159 3.7.2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses 160 3.7.3 Ellipsis in question-answer sequences 160 3.7.4 Other types of textual ellipsis 160 3.7.5 Omission of function words and situational ellipsis 161 3.8 Negation 162 3.8.1 Overall frequency of negation 162 3.8.2 Not-negation 163 3.8.2.1 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got) 163 3.8.2.2 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to 165 3.8.2.3 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need 166 3.8.2.4 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to 167 3.8.2.5 Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction 168 3.8.2.6 Aren’t I and ain’t 169 3.8.3 No-negation 170 3.8.4 Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation 172 3.8.4.1 Variability of not-negation and no-negation 172 3.8.4.2 Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation 173 3.8.4.3 Choice of no-negation v. not-negation 173 3.8.4.4 Not-negation collocations 176 3.8.5 The scope of negation 177 3.8.6 Assertive and non-assertive forms 178 3.8.7 Multiple negation 180 3.8.7.1 Dependent multiple negation 180 3.8.7.2 Independent multiple negation 181