GNOSIS KURT The Nature & History RUDOLPH of Gnosticism G N O S I S GNOSIS The Nature and History of Gnosticism KURT RUDOLPH Translation edited by Robert McLachlan Wilson 4âü tm HarperSanFrancisco A Division of WzvpcrCoW'msPublisbers Translators P. W. Coxon (pages 171-274) K. H. Kuhn (pages 275-376) R. McL. Wilson (translation editor; pages 1-170) First published in the German Democratic Republic by Koehler & Amelang, Leipzig, 1977 as Die Gnosis; Wesen und Geschichte einer spätantiken Religion Copyright © Koehler & Amelang, 1977 First Harper & Row Paperback Edition 1987 This work is a translation from the German of the second, revised and expanded edition (1980) of Die Gnosis: Wesen und Geschichte einer spätantiken Religion Copyright © T. & T. Clark Limited, Edinburgh, 1984 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any man­ ner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address HarperCollins Publishers, 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022 Library of Congress Number 81-47437 ISBN: 0-06-067018-5 (pbk) CONTENTS List of Illustrations...............................................................VII Abbreviations........................................................................ XI Preface ................................................................................... 1 Translator’s N o te ............................................ ..................... 7 TH E SO U R C ES ............................................................. 9 The Heresiological Literature and the Older History of Research ........................................................................... 9 The Early Heresiologists and Their Works ............. 10 The Older Sources..................... .......................................... 25 The History of R esearch..................................................... 30 The Nag Hammadi Discovery and its Significance........... 34 N A T U R E AND S T R U C T U R E ............. .................. 53 The Main Features of Gnostic Ideology and Mythology . 53 Dualism ................................................................................... 59 Cosmology and Cosm ogony................................................ 67 Anthropology and A nthropogony..................................... 88 The Doctrine of Redemption and the R edeem er............. 113 The Ascent of the Soul and the End of the World . . . . . 171 Community, Cult and Social Practice (Ethics) ................204 H IS T O R Y ...........................................................................275 Presuppositions and Causes. The Problem of Origins . . . 275 Early Schools and System s...................................................294 The Great Systems of the 2nd C en tu ry ............................. 308 M anicheism .......................................................... .,...........326 A Relic : The Mandeans ..................................................... 343 E P IL O G U E ..................................................................... 367 A Historical Survey of the Changes and Consequences of G nosis................................................................................367 A P P E N D IX ............................................................ 377 Chronological Table . . . ................................................... . 377 Notes ..................................................................................... 379 Select Bibliography Sources (Original Texts and Translations)........................391 Essays and Monographs ..................................................... 397 Index ......................................................................................405 VII List of Illustrations Illustrations in Text 40 The surroundings of Nag Hammadi, after W .C. van Unnik, Evangelien aus dem Nil­ sand, Frankfurt (Main) 1960,5. Cf. also I. Doresse, Les Livres secrets des gnostiques d’Égypte, Paris 1958, 152 f. 68 The Ophite Diagram, after H. Leisegang, Die Gnosis, Stuttgart 1955, at p. 32. Cf. also Th. Hopfner, Das Diagramm der Ophiten (in Charisteria Alois Rzach zum 80. Ge­ burtstag dargebracht, Reichenberg 1930, 86-98), 95 plate 3. 70 The universe as a serpent, from a Greek manuscript (Z. 299 = 584) in the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciono, Venice, after H. Leisegang, Die Gnosis, at p. 45. 174 “Signs” and “seals” of the aeons, from Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, 1. Band, Die Pistis Sophia, Die beiden Bücher des Jeu, ed. C. Schmidt, 3rd ed. rev. W. Till Berlin 1962 (GCS 45), 268, 269,292,322. Cf. also V.MacDermot, The Books o f Jeu, Leiden 1978 (NHS XIII), 57, 58,85,86,127. 212 Grave inscription of Flavia Sophë, Museo Kircheriano (Museo Nazionale Romano), after A. Ferma, Questioni di epigrafia eret- ica romano (in Rivista di Archeologia Christiana XXI (1944/5), 164-221), p. 185. 223 The world serpent (ouroboros) as an amulet. Greek papyrus CXXI in the British Museum, London, after H. Leisegang, Die Gnosis, at p. 145. Cf. also K. Preisendanz, Papyri Graecae Magicae, 2nd ed. rev. A. Henrichs, Bd. II, Stuttgart 1974, 26f. (VII, 580-590) and Plate 1, No. 4. 248 Serpent in the ancient Greek cult of Demeter at Eleusis, after a relief in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, Cat. No. 144. The Museum very kindly placed a photo at my disposal. Cf. E.Kister, Die Schlange in der griechischen Kunst und Re­ ligion, Berlin 1913,146f. 295 Dedication to the old Roman god of oaths, Semo Sancus. Lapidarium of the Vatican Museum (new) No. 6808, CIL VI 567. From an original photograph from the Museum. Cf. also H.Achelis, Das Chri­ stentum in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 2nd ed., Leipzig 1925, Plate XI, 1. 334 Mandean magic bowl, after H. Pognon, Inscriptions mandaites des coupes de Khouabir. Paris 1898, No. 15. 361 Traditional Mandean sanctuary (mandi), after E. S. Drower, The Mandaearts o f Iraq and Iran, Oxford 1937, 140 (No. 7). The original for this drawing was the old Mandi of Qal’at Salih, today no longer used. Plates Plate I Manichean book illustration (miniature) from Turkestan, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von Le Coq, Die Buddhistische Spätantike in Mittelasien II. Die manichäischen Miniaturen, Berlin 1923, Plate 7b. Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. II Manichean book illustration (miniature) from Turkestan, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von Le Coq, Manichäische Miniaturen, Plate 8b. Cf. al­ so id., Chotscho. Faksimile - Wiedergaben der wichtigeren Funde der 1. Kgl. Preussi- schen Expedition nach Turfafi in Ost-Tur- kistan, Berlin 1913, Bd. 1, plate 5, left (front). Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. III Manichean book illustration (miniature) from Turkestan, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von Le Coq, Manichäische Miniaturen, plate 8a: b. Cf. id., Chotscho, Bd. 1, plate 5 right. Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. IV Prominent Uigur ladies, Museum für In­ dische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von Le Coq, Chotscho, Bd. 2, plate 30b. Photo Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. Plate 1 Hippolytus of Rome, Vatican. For­ merly in the Lateran Museum but now (ac­ cording to J. Frickel) in the entrance hall of VIII the Vatican Libary. The photograph was taken after cleaning in 1975. Cf. J .Ficker, Die altchristlichen Bildwerke im christli­ chen Museum des Lateran untersucht und beschrieben, Leipzig 1890, 166-175; O. Wulff, Die altchristliche Kunst I, Berlin 1913, 150; M .Guarducci, La statua di “Sant’ Ippolito” in Vaticano, in Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana d'Ar- cheologia XLVII (1974/75), 163-190 (ad­ vocates the theory that the statue was origi­ nally not a male figure at all, but a second- century representation of Themista, a fe­ male disciple of Epicurus; the inscriptions were subsequently carved on the sides of the chair by Christians in the third century ; only in the 16th century, particularly in the first description by Pirro Ligario, was it made into a statue of Hippolytus, and here the ancient coin-type of Hippocrates served as a m odel). The dating of the rededication of the statue through the inscriptions about 235/237, which is also the period of a perse­ cution to which Hippolytus fell victim, goes back to information in a letter (7.1. 1977) from J . Frickel in Rom e. 2 Epiphanius of Salamis, fresco from Faras, C at.N o.57. Photo: Zbigniew Kapuscik, Warsaw. - Cf. K.Michalowski, Faras, Die Wandbilder in den Sammlungen des Natio­ nalmuseums zu Warschau, Warsaw- -D resden 1974,257 (colour), 258 (section), 259-62 (description), 314f. (inscriptions No. 36, 37, 38 examined by S. Jakobielski). 3-7 Ancient magic gems 3 Berlin (W est), Staatliche M useen, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum, inv. 9852. Green jasper with red stripes set in a ring. 0,025:0,0175.1 owe the photograph of this hitherto unpublished gem to Dr. H. M aehler, Berlin (West). 4 Berlin (West), Staatliche Museen, Stiftung Preussischen Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum, inv.9853. Greenish red jasper. Photo: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (DDR). Cf. M. Pieper, Die Abraxasgem­ men (in Mitt. Dt. Inst. f. Ägypt. Altertums­ kunde in Kairo, Bd. V, 1934,119-143) 142. 5 Berlin (W est), Staatliche Museen, Stiftung Preussischen Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum, inv. 9861. Greenish red jasper. Photo: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (DD R). C f.M .Pieper, Die Abraxasgem­ men 142. 6 Berlin (W est), Staatliche M useen, Stiftung Preussischen Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum, inv. 9805. Reddish brown stone. Photo :,J. Leipoldt-Archiv, Universität Je­ na, Sektion Theologie. Cf. J. Leipoldt, Bilder zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (= Umwelt des Urchristentums, ed. J. Lei­ poldt and W. Grundmann, Bd. III) Berlin 1966, illustration 13. 7 Berlin (W est), Staatliche M useen, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Ägyptisches Museum, inv. 9931. Green stone. Photo: J. Leipoldt-Archiv, Universität Jena, Sek­ tion Theologie. Cf. J.Leipoldt, Bilder zum neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, illustration 14. 8 Alabaster bowl, in private ownership (pres­ ent location unknown ; it last appears in the auction catalogue of the Jacob-Hirsch- Collection from 5. Dec. 1957, Lucerne, no. 105). Height 8cm. diam .22cm ., depth 5.5cm. After R .D elbrueck / W. Vollgraff, An Orphic Bowl, in Journal o f Hellenic Stu­ dies 54 (1934) 129-139, plate III. Cf. also H. Lamer, Eine spätgriechische Schale mit orphischer Aufschrift, in 'Phil. Woche 51 (1931) 653ff.; H.Leisegang, Das Mysteri­ um der Schlange, in Eranos Jahrbuch 1939, Zürich 1940,151-251 ; id. Die Gnosis 150 f., Illustration at p.160; P .C .Finney, Did Gnostics make Pictures? in B. Layton (ed.), The Rediscovery o f Gnosticism I, Leiden 1980, 441. 9 Subterranean Basilica at the Porta Maggi­ ore, Rome, Photo: Fototeca Unione, Rome. Cf. J. Carcopino De Pythagore aux Apôtres, Paris, 1956, 85-211. 10 View from the Djebel-el-Tarif. Photo: The Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal., December 1975. 11 North side of El-Qasr (Chenoboskion). Photo: The Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal., December 1975. IX 12 Massif of the Djebel-el-Tarif from the north-west. Photo: Douglas Kuyienstierna. 13 The place of discovery. Photo: Douglas Kuyienstierna, December 1975. J.Doresse in 1949 had already photographed the same spot as the place of discovery (cf. Les livres secrets des gnostiquts d’Egypte, illustration at p. 137. The frontispiece to The Secret Books is different). 14 The Nag Hammadi Codices, from a photo taken by J.D oresse in 1949. Photographic Archive of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal. The identifi­ cation of the individual volumes rests on in­ formation supplied by J. M. Robinson. 15 Inside of the cover of Codex VII before the removal of the papyrus fragments for pres­ ervation under glass (1970). Coptic Muse­ um in Cairo. Photo: The Institute for An­ tiquity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal. Cf. Facsimile Edition o f the Nag H am­ madi Codices, Codex V II, Leiden 1972, plate 4; J.W .B .B arns, Greek and Coptic Papyri from the Covers of the Nag Hamma­ di Codices, in M. Krause (ed.), Essays on the Nag Hammadi Texts in honour of Pahor Labib, Leiden 1975 (NHS VI), 9r 18. 16 Outside of the leather cover of Codex II, Coptic Museum in Cairo. Photo : The Insti­ tute for Antiquity and Christianity, Clare­ mont, Cal. Cf. Berthe van Regemorter, La reliure des manuscrits gnostiques décou­ verts à Nag Hammadi (in Scriptorium 14 (1960) 225-234), 228-230, and in M. Krause / P. Labib, Die Drei Versionen des Apokryphon des Johannes im Kopti­ schen Museum zu Alt-Kairo, Wiesbaden 1962 (ADAIK Kopt. Reihe 1), 32f. with plates VI-IX . 17 The open Codex IV, Coptic Museum, Cai­ ro. Photo: Jean Doresse, Paris (1949). 18 Nag Hammadi Codex XIII p.33 (with two fragments added since the Facsimile Edi­ tion of this volume), Coptic M useum, Cai­ ro. Photo: The Institute for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal. 19 Nag Hammadi Codex I p. 43, Coptic Mu­ seum, Cairo. Photo: The Institute for A nti­ quity and Christianity, Claremont, Cal. 20 Papyrus-Berolinensis 8502, p. 77. Staat­ liche Museen zu Berlin (D D R), Papyrus­ abteilung. Photo: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. 21, 22 Ruins of Chotsko, group K, after A. von Le Coq, Manichäische Miniaturen, plate Ac (= Chotscho, B d. 2, plate 69 c) and id.Chotscho, Bd. 2, plate 67. Photos: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. 23 Manichean miniature (meal of the elect at the Bema festival), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (W est), after A. von Le Coq, Manichäische Miniaturen, plate 8b: a. Cf. the explanations, op. cit. 53ff., H.- J. Klimkeit, Manichaean Art and Calligra­ phy, Leiden 1982 (Iconography of Religion XX), 33f. Photo: Volkmar H erre, Leipzig. 24 Iranian Manichean manuscript (M 4 II V) Akademie der Wissenschaften der DD R, Zentralinstitut für Alte Geschichte und A r­ chäologie, Bereich Alter Orient, Berlin. Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. Cf. F. W. K. Müller, Handschriften-Reste in Estrangelo-Schrift ausTurfan, Chinesisch- Turkistan II, in A b h .P A W 1904, Anhang 2, Berlin 1904, 51 f.; M.Boyce. A Cata­ logue o f the Iranian Manuscripts in Mani­ chaean Script in the German Turf an Collec­ tion, Berlin 1960,2 (read 4 for 4 a and 4 a for 4b). 25 Prominent Uigur benefactors from Bäzäk- lik (Turfan), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (W est), after A. von Le Coq, Chot­ scho, plate 30. Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. 26 Iranian Manichean manuscript fragment (M 18 R), Akademie der Wissenschaften der D D R, Zentralinstitut für Alte Ge­ schichte und Archäologie, Bereich Alter Orient, Berlin. Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. C f.F.W . K. Müller, Handschrif­ ten-Reste II, 35 f. 27 Manichean “Elect” (Electa), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von Le Coq, Chotscho, plate 3a (left). Photo: Volkmar H erre, Leipzig. 28 Manichean “Elect” (Electus), Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin (West), after A. von X Le Coq, Chotscho, plate 3b (right). Photo: Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. 29, 30 Cologne Mani Codex before conserva­ tion, Institut für Altertumskunde der Uni­ versität Köln, P. Colon, inv.4780. Photo: Institut für Altertumskunde der Universi­ tät Köln. Cf. A. Henrichs / L. Koenen, Ein griechischer Mani-Codex, 215 and plate IV. 31 Coptic Manichean manuscript (Kephalaia p. 168), Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Papy­ rusabteilung, P. 15996. Photo: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Cf. A.Böhlig / H. J. Po- lotsky / C. Schmidt, Kephalaia, 1. Hälfte, Stuttgart 1940 (Manich. Handschriften der Staatlichen Museen Berlin Bd. 1), 168 (from chap. 69). 32 Chinese Manichean manuscript from Tun- Huang, A. Stein London Hymn-rolls 2659, lines 387-400, after E. Waldschmidt / W .Lentz, Die Stellung Jesu im Manichäis- mus, Berlin 1926 (Abh.PAW 1926, Phil.- hist.Kl.Nr.4), plate I. Cf. op. cit. 122-124 (exposition and translation). Photo: Volk­ mar Herre, Leipzig. 33 Traditional Mandean sanctuary (Mandi) in Qal’at Salih. Photo: Kurt Rudolph (April 1969). 34 Mandean priests at the mass for the dead. Photo: Kurt Rudolph (1969). 35 Ganzibra 'Abdullah of Baghdad. Photo: Kurt Rudolph (1969). 36 Mandean baptism in the Tigris at Baghdad. Photo: Gustav Pfirrmann, Telfes (Süd­ tirol). 37 Mandean priest in ceremonial robes. Pho­ to: Gustav Pfirrmann, Telfes (Südtirol). 38 The holy draught of water (mambühä) after baptism. Photo: Gustav Pfirrmann, Telfes (Südtirol). 39 Close of the baptismal ceremony. Photo: Gustav Pfirrmann, Telfes (Sudtirol). 40, 41 Mandean magic bowl, Royal Ontario Museum, Canada, sign. 931.4.1, after W. S.McCullough, Jewish and Mandaeap Incarnation Bowls in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto 1967, at p. 12 (Bowl C): Height 7.2cm; diam. above 19.9cm; diam. below 8.4 cm. 42 Mandean manuscript roll Zraztä d'Hibil Zïwâ, in the possession of the author. Pho­ to : Volkmar Herre, Leipzig. Cf. J. de Mor­ gan, Mission Scientifique en Perse V/2: Textes mandaïtes, Paris 1904, 255-270. (transcription of thé same text). 43 Mandean codex, Right Ginza p. 1, Bodle­ ian Library, Oxford, Drower Collection N o.22, reproduced from a micro-film. 44-48 From the Diwan Abathur, stations on the journey of the soul, Bodleian Library, Oxford, Drower Collection No. 8, after E. S. Drower, Diwan Abatur or Progress through the Purgatories, Città del Vaticano 1950 (Studi e Testi 151). Another manu­ script in the Vatican Library (Borgiano siri- aco 175) was acquired in the 16th century by Ignatius à Jesu and published by J. Eut- ing in 1904 after photographs taken by B.Poertner (Mandäischer Diwan, Stras­ bourg 1904). Both manuscripts are undated. Abbreviations The normal abbreviations have been used for books of the Bible. Abh. Abhandlung AD AIK Abhandlungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo (Kopt. Reihe) AWG Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen BBA Berliner Byzantinische Arbeiten BCNH Bibliothèque Copte de Nag Hammadi BdKV Bibliothek der Kirchenväter. Hrsg. von 0 , Bardenhewer, K. Weyman, J. Zellinger. 2. Reihe (München) Beitr. Beiträge BZNW Beihefte zur ZNW CGL The Coptic Gnostic Library Corp. Herrn. Corpus Hermeticum DAW Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften ; Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR GCS Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte. Hrsg. von der PAW bzw. der DAW En. Enoch ' ET English Translation GL Left Ginza GR Right Ginza HAW Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften JbAC Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum KIT Kleine Texte für Vorlesungen und Übungen. Hrsg. bzw. begr. von H. Lietzmann Mitt. Mitteilungen NF Neue Folge NHC Nag Hammadi Codex or Codices NHS Nag Hammadi Studies (Leiden) NovTest Novum Testamentum NS New Series NTS New Testament Studies OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung Pap. Ber. Papyrus Berolinensis 8502 PAW Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin PTS Patristische Texte und Studien PWRE Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaften QH Qumran, Hymns QS Qumran, Manual of Discipline RGG2; RGG3 Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 2. bzw. 3. Aufl. (Tübingen) RGGV Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten SAW Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig SB Sitzungsberichte SBL Society of Biblical Literature SQS Sammlung ausgewählter kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlicher Quellenschriften. Hrsg. bzw. begr. von G. Krüger (Tübingen) ThLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung ThR Theologische Rundschau TU Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur VigChrist. Vigiliae Christianae WdF Wege der Forschung (Darmstadt) Wiss. Beitr. Wissenschaftliche Beiträge WZ Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift ZKG Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte ZNW Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik ZRG G Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte ZThK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche PREFACE TO ENGLISH EDITION It is due to the effort and initiative of Professor R. McL. Wilson that an English translation of my book on Gnosis can be pub­ lished, by the long-established Scottish firm of T. and T. Clark, so soon after the appearance of the first and second German editions. Technical terminology tends to vary from one region to another, and anyone who knows the trouble it costs to trans­ late scientific works properly, with due regard to language, style and subject-matter, will be able to judge how much work has been involved for Professor Wilson and his collaborators, P. W. Coxon and Κ. H. Kuhn, in the production of this English edition. The author was regularly able to follow and control their careful and circumspect work, in particular during an un­ forgettable personal visit to St. Andrews. I therefore owe more than ordinary thanks to my honoured colleague R. McL. Wil­ son and his team - this is not the first time that they have ren­ dered service by the translation of German works in theology and the science of religion - and especially because through them it is possible for me to express more general thanks for the stimulus which I have received from the literature in English on research into Gnosis. It is to be hoped that the worldwide range of the English language will not only be of advantage for the dissemination of the book, but will also further knowledge about Gnosis and Gnosticism in wider circles, since precisely here in my experience a mass of false and unscientific opinions and speculations is in circulation. In this regard it is certainly appropriate to reproduce in the English edition also the follow­ ing passages from the Preface to the first German edition (1977), in the context of which I take the liberty of making brief and explicit reference to some older works of British and American research into Gnosis. The growing interest, even among a wider public, in what is to be understood by “Gnosis” or “Gnosticism” is founded not only on the great discoveries of Manichean and gnostic manu­ scripts which have been made in this century in Turkestan (Tur- fan 1902-1914) and Egypt (Medinet Madi 1930 and Nag Ham­ madi 1945/6-1948), but also on the importance of this form of religion in late antiquity, which has been increasingly recog­ nised in historical and critical research. A clear-cut definition of G n o s is this “religion of knowledge” or of “insight”, as the Greek word gnosis may be translated, is not easy, but should at least be briefly suggested at the very outset. We shall not go far wrong to see in it a dualistic religion, consisting of several schools and movements, which took up a definitely negative attitude to­ wards the world and the society of the time, and proclaimed a deliverance (“redemption”) of man precisely from the con­ straints of earthly existence through “insight” into his essential relationship, whether as “soul” or “spirit”, - a relationship tem­ porarily obscured-with a supramundane realm of freedom and of rest. Its spread through time and space, from the beginning of our era onwards, from the western part of the Near East (Sy­ ria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor) to central and eastern Asia and mediaeval Europe (14th cent.) affords some indication of the role to be assigned to it, even in a modified and adapted form, in the history of religion, to say nothing of the fact that even today a remnant still exists in the Mandeans of Iraq and Iran. In other respects also manifold influences on the history of thought can be detected in European and Near Eastern tra­ ditions, be it in theology, theosophy, mysticism or philosophy. In regard to information about Gnosis, however, the situa­ tion is none of the best, especially for the non-specialist, since for a long time there has been no major full-scale survey. We may recall the two older works of G. R. S. Mead (Fragments of a Faith Forgotten: The Gnostics, 1900, reprint 1960; 3 German editions 1902, 1906, 1931) and F.Legge (Fore-runners and Ri­ vals of Christianity from 330 B. C. to 333 A. D ., 1915, reprint 1964). In 1932 F. C. Burkitt wrote his influential book Church and Gnosis. The handy monograph Die Gnosis by H.Leise- gang, which went through four editions in German, goes back ultimately to 1924 (only a French translation has appeared: La Gnose. Paris 1951). In 1934, shortly before his exile from Nazi Germany, Hans Jonas published the first part of his pioneering and influential study Gnosis und spätantiker Geist (3rd ed. 1964). Then from his new homeland in the U.S.A. he provided for the English-speaking reader a more popular and slightly modified introduction to his position in The Gnostic Religion (1958, 21963, 31970). Basic questions of research into Gnosis, such as resulted from the influence of R.Bultmann and his school (to which Jonas also belongs), are discussed in the works of R.McL. Wilson {The Gnostic Problem 1958, 21964; Gnosis