This book is dedicated with love and thankfulness to Peg for giving me the freedom to write, indeed the ability to live in freedom. CONTENTS Foreword: Defining Freedom ONE Patrick Henry 1736–1799 Give me liberty or give me death TWO Daniel Webster 1782–1852 Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable THREE The Abolitionists James W. C. Pennington c. 1807–1870 God of Liberty, save us from this clause Wendell Phillips 1811–1884 I am a fanatic Frederick Douglass 1818–1895 Freedom … is the right to choose FOUR The Suffragists Angelina Grimké 1805–1879 Deliver me from the oppression of men Abby Kelley Foster 1811–1887 Bloody feet, sisters, have worn smooth the path by which you have come hither Elizabeth Cady Stanton 1815–1902 No just government can be formed without the consent of the governed FIVE Abraham Lincoln 1809–1865 A new nation, conceived in liberty SIX William Jennings Bryan 1860–1925 You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold SEVEN Franklin Delano Roosevelt 1882–1945 The only thing we have to fear is fear itself EIGHT Adlai E. Stevenson 1900–1965 A free society is a society where it is safe to be unpopular NINE Ronald Reagan 1911–2004 Man is not free unless government is limited TEN Martin Luther King, Jr. 1929–1968 I have a dream Epilogue Bibliography Endnotes Index Acknowledgments FOREWORD DEFINING FREEDOM G ive me liberty,” demanded Patrick Henry as he held up his right arm and flourished an ivory letter opener, “or give me death!” Bringing the point of the letter opener down to his chest, he collapsed dramatically into his chair. “Visual aids” can sometimes help get our attention, and they may have done so on that day, just over two years before July 4, 1776. Today, however, Patrick Henry’s letter opener has been largely forgotten—one witness apparently failed to notice it in the first place and remembered only a gesture with his hands— while his words continue to echo in American history and the speech remains one of the two or three known to almost every American. There are only a few speeches that most Americans remember, and all of them have to do with liberty. They seem to trace a rising arc of understanding, of broadening and clarifying the definition of liberty, a word that remains a central value in American life and is stamped on every United States coin in circulation. But what exactly is liberty? There seems to be a wide range of opinion, and seldom have the ends of that range spread further apart than today. In Patrick Henry’s day it was simple enough to think in terms of freedom from a foreign government’s control of one’s life; but now a variety of forces impact our lives in various ways, and freeing ourselves from one may make us more vulnerable to another. Sometimes we are eager to work for measures that seem to increase our own freedom without thinking or caring that they may limit the freedom of others who are seeking other goals, goals that may seem to us wrong-headed or even immoral—as ours may seem to them. Questions about the meaning of freedom seem to rise up daily to challenge us. What limits, if any, should government place on our freedom to marry whom we choose or to purchase whatever weapons we want or smoke cigarettes or marijuana or cut down a tree or drain a swamp? Should American freedom include immigrants who arrive without documentation? Should American resources be used in an attempt to expand the freedom of those living elsewhere under oppressive regimes? The questions are endless, and no two people are likely to give the same answers to all of them. It is, however, questions like these that Americans have worked to resolve, sometimes peacefully and sometimes with great violence, over the span of our history. Perhaps uniquely among the nations of the world, the United States traces its origins to groups and individuals who came specifically to create something new. For some of those who came, that “something new” was simply an escape from economic or political or religious oppression. For some, it was as simple as better farmland or economic opportunity for themselves. For still others, however, it was a society organized around specific, clearly stated principles. For all of them, the land that would become the United States of America represented freedom, freedom from the economic or political or religious or social systems they had known and freedom to live in a new way, however they might define it. Canadians and Australians and others might claim a similar history; but at one dramatic point in their past, Americans fought a war demanding freedom and created a Constitution to define and protect the freedom they envisioned. Freedom, then, became a unifying principle in a unique way, but still it was defined so differently by various individuals and groups that Americans have been arguing ever since as to what freedom truly means and what it should look like. Among the most important groups who came were the Puritans and Pilgrims who began the settlement of the New England states. They came to be free of a church that was deeply offensive to them, and to be able to create a new society based on their own principles. As their ships neared the New England coast, their leader, John Winthrop, preached a sermon in which he highlighted a further dimension of the American experiment in freedom. “We must consider,” he said, “that we shall be as a city upon a hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.” Not only were the colonists creating a new society for themselves, but they were embarking on an experiment that would be watched, for better or worse, by others, some who would hope to see it fail and some who would hope to see it succeed and so establish a model for themselves as well. Winthrop’s words would be remembered and cited by two American presidents, John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan, more than three centuries later. Reagan would cite it often and add the word “shining,” to make it “a shining city on a hill.” Winthrop’s words would also take flesh as American presidents spoke in Berlin and Cairo and Beijing and Moscow and Capetown and were listened to as bearing witness to an ideal which, however poorly it may be realized in some respects in the United States, remains a hope that inspires millions living under tyranny. In the time since John Winthrop spoke, ordinary Americans have been at work building the imagined city. Some have shared his vision very specifically while others have had different dreams—or none that they could articulate. Together they have created a working society in which freedom, variously defined and understood, has remained a central value. Along the way, there have been many who have expressed the vision in their own words, drawing on their own experience, and responding as well to new challenges in changing times and circumstances. Some of these have used words that seemed so appropriate that they have been remembered and quoted and held up to inspire others. The effort to define freedom continues today and is reported almost daily in the media. John Winthrop is cited still, and so are Abraham Lincoln and Ronald Reagan and Martin Luther King, Jr. and others. Their words do remain relevant, yet our circumstances continue to change and the definition of freedom, if it is to be useful, must continue to be expressed in new ways. As we struggle to find ways to define freedom in our own day, it is useful to remember how it has been defined in the past by the particular men and women whose words have been most often remembered. What were the challenges they faced? What circumstances shaped their own vision and their ability to express it in memorable ways? What lessons can be learned from their various successes and failures? Words, of course, are used eloquently on paper as well. The words of the Declaration of Independence echo through American history—but, although they were primarily the work of Thomas Jefferson, they were given final form by a committee. Other words, those of Walt Whitman or William Lloyd Garrison or those of “America the Beautiful,” for example, have made an enormous impact. But limits must be set, and this book deals only with the spoken word and with some of those who spoke with particular eloquence. This book also is a collection of stories, not an essay about freedom, because freedom may be defined in human lives as well as words. Patrick Henry, Daniel Webster, and the others whose stories are told here believed passionately in the ideal of freedom and used words eloquently to express their understanding of that ideal and to inspire others with their vision. But their words were less eloquent than their lives; indeed, it was the lives they lived that shaped the words they spoke. It is by understanding their lives that we will understand better what they sought to accomplish with their words, how they succeeded in some ways and failed in others, and how we should not be surprised at the need to continue to redefine freedom in our own new times and circumstances and in our own lives. Patrick Henry, Daniel Webster, and the others whose stories this book tells were remarkably different people and were shaped by vastly different circumstances. What circumstances and ambitions led them to speak and act as they did? What different challenges do we now face, and how might their words and actions be relevant still? How do their ideas agree with our own—or differ from them? The various visions of freedom given us by these speakers were distinctively shaped by their individual histories and by the circumstances in which they found themselves. The idea of freedom may begin as something experienced by children of the frontier like Henry, Lincoln, and Bryan, children of economic security like Roosevelt and Stevenson, children of psychological insecurity like Reagan, or children born into deprivation of freedom like Martin Luther King, Jr. One way or another, freedom is first envisioned in individual terms and then in terms of a political system that enables that freedom to exist for others also. And that vision needs constantly to respond to new realities, political, economic, and international, with a continuing reinterpretation and expansion of the ideal of freedom. This book is not intended to discuss the particulars of present issues, but rather to provide a background for discussion of those issues and to focus attention on particular individuals who summed up the issues of their own day in phrases that have never been forgotten. It may be that in turning away for the moment from our own issues, we can gain perspective on them and, as a result, listen to each other with a greater depth of understanding and deal with our own problems more constructively. ONE Patrick Henry 1736–1799 GIVE ME LIBERTY OR GIVE ME DEATH I W hen he brandished the ivory letter opener and uttered the words for which he will always be remembered, Patrick Henry was no newcomer on the political stage and it was not the first time he had laid out choices for his audience in dramatic terms. It was eleven years before that, in early December 1763, that a gangling, red-headed twenty-seven-year-old lawyer had come to the Hanover Courthouse in Hanover, Virginia, to try his first important case. Older and wiser lawyers had turned the case down because they thought the cause was hopeless and they would be embarrassed to be on the losing side. But Patrick Henry saw something more involved than a local issue and was willing to challenge his community to see what he saw. Life in eighteenth-century Virginia was dominated by tobacco. The first colonists had come seeking gold; instead, they found a strange weed with leaves that could be dried, placed in a pipe, and burned to produce smoke that was pleasantly soothing when inhaled. As the years went by, more and more Europeans became addicted to this smoke, and the leaf of the tobacco became a kind of substitute for gold. In fact, when the colony issued paper money, it pictured not the king, as English money did, but crossed leaves of tobacco. No wonder, then, that tobacco itself was actually used as money and that even the clergy were paid in tobacco. That payment system was the problem that confronted the court on that late autumn day and drew a larger than usual crowd to the Hanover Courthouse.