J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2011 by J. Ross Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-932159-83-7 Printed and bound in the U.S.A. Printed on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Geotechnical engineering handbook / edited by Braja M. Das. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-932159-83-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Engineering geology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Soil mechanics— Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Das, Braja M., 1941- TA705.G4275 2010 624.1′51—dc22 2010025992 This publication contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Re- printed material is used with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable effort has been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. All rights reserved. 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Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved Contents Preface ........................................................................................................................................ ix Editor-in-Chief ........................................................................................................................... x Contributors .............................................................................................................................. xi 1 Engineering Properties of Soil Nagaratnam Sivakugan 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1-1 1.2 Phase Relations ...................................................................................................... 1-2 1.3 Soil Classification ................................................................................................... 1-4 1.4 Compaction ............................................................................................................ 1-9 1.5 Flow through Soils ............................................................................................... 1-12 1.6 Consolidation ....................................................................................................... 1-18 1.7 Shear Strength ...................................................................................................... 1-25 1.8 Site Investigation ................................................................................................. 1-31 1.9 Soil Variability ..................................................................................................... 1-41 1.10 Geotechnical Instrumentation ............................................................................ 1-42 2 Lateral Earth Pressure Braja M. Das 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2-1 2.2 At-Rest Earth Pressure .......................................................................................... 2-2 2.3 Rankine Active Pressure ........................................................................................ 2-4 2.4 Rankine Active Pressure with Inclined Backfill .................................................. 2-7 2.5 Coulomb’s Active Pressure ................................................................................. 2-11 2.6 Active Earth Pressure with Earthquake Forces ................................................. 2-12 2.7 Rankine Passive Pressure .................................................................................... 2-21 2.8 Rankine Passive Pressure with Inclined Backfill ............................................... 2-23 2.9 Coulomb’s Passive Pressure ................................................................................ 2-25 2.10 Passive Pressure with Curved Failure Surface (Granular Soil Backfill) .......... 2-26 2.11 Passive Pressure under Earthquake Conditions (Granular Backfill) ............... 2-34 3 Design of Shallow Foundations Nagaratnam Sivakugan and Marcus Pacheco 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3-2 3.2 Stresses beneath Loaded Areas ............................................................................. 3-2 J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved iii iv Geotechnical Engineering Handbook 3.3 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations ........................................................... 3-6 3.4 Pressure Distribution beneath Eccentrically Loaded Footings ........................ 3-18 3.5 Settlement of Shallow Foundations in Cohesive Soils ...................................... 3-19 3.6 Settlement of Shallow Foundations in Granular Soils ...................................... 3-24 3.7 Raft Foundations ................................................................................................. 3-32 3.8 Shallow Foundations under Tensile Loading .................................................... 3-40 Appendix A .................................................................................................................... 3-49 Appendix B ..................................................................................................................... 3-50 4 Foundation-Soil Interaction Priti Maheshwari 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 4-1 4.2 Modeling of Ground (Soil Mass) and Constitutive Equations .......................... 4-2 4.3 Estimation of Model Parameters ........................................................................ 4-21 4.4 Application to Shallow Foundations .................................................................. 4-31 4.5 Application to Pile Foundations ......................................................................... 4-63 5 Design of Pile Foundations Sanjeev Kumar 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 5-2 5.2 Foundation Support Cost Index .......................................................................... 5-3 5.3 Types of Deep Foundations .................................................................................. 5-3 5.4 Allowable Stress and Load and Resistance Factor Design of Deep Foundations ........................................................................................................... 5-6 5.5 Axial Capacity of Piles in Compression ............................................................. 5-12 5.6 Ultimate Static Capacity of Single Piles in Cohesionless Soils ........................ 5-15 5.7 Ultimate Static Capacity of Single Piles in Cohesive Soils ............................... 5-26 5.8 Design Capacity of Single Piles .......................................................................... 5-31 5.9 Effect of Pile Driving on Pile Capacity .............................................................. 5-32 5.10 Ultimate Load-Carrying Capacity and Resistance to Driving ......................... 5-33 5.11 Capacity of Piles Bearing on Rock ..................................................................... 5-34 5.12 Special Considerations for Calculation of A .................................................... 5-36 p 5.13 Special Considerations for Calculation of Perimeter ........................................ 5-37 5.14 Maximum Stresses in Driven Piles ..................................................................... 5-38 5.15 Uplift Capacity of Single Piles ............................................................................ 5-38 5.16 Lateral Capacity of Single Piles ........................................................................... 5-39 5.17 Design of Pile Groups ......................................................................................... 5-45 5.18 Settlement of Pile Foundations .......................................................................... 5-58 Example 1: Point Capacity of a Pile in Sand ............................................................... 5-61 Example 2: Skin Friction Capacity of a Pile in Sand .................................................. 5-63 Example 3: Capacity of a Pile in Clay............................................................................5-65 Example 4: Capacity of a Pile End Bearing on Rock .................................................. 5-69 6 Retaining Walls Aniruddha Sengupta 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 6-2 6.2 Initial Proportioning of Retaining Walls ............................................................. 6-5 6.3 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories ............................................................................ 6-6 J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved Contents v 6.4 Forces Acting on a Retaining Wall ..................................................................... 6-11 6.5 Stability Checks of a Retaining Wall .................................................................. 6-12 6.6 Stability Analysis of Rigid Retaining Walls ....................................................... 6-14 6.7 Stability Analysis of Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall ................................................ 6-21 6.8 Stability Analysis of Anchored Sheet Pile Wall ................................................. 6-25 6.9 Anchorage Systems for Sheet Pile Walls ............................................................ 6-31 6.10 Design Example of an Anchorage System ......................................................... 6-36 6.11 Design Example of a Braced Wall System ......................................................... 6-38 6.12 Mechanically Stabilized Retaining Walls ........................................................... 6-40 6.13 Failure of Retaining Walls .................................................................................. 6-42 7 Slope Stability Khaled Sobhan 7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 7-1 7.2 Goals of Slope Stability Analysis .......................................................................... 7-2 7.3 Slope Movements and Landslides ........................................................................ 7-3 7.4 Soil Mechanics Principles for Slope Analysis ...................................................... 7-6 7.5 Essential Concepts for Slope Analysis ................................................................ 7-13 7.6 Analysis of Slope Stability ................................................................................... 7-19 7.7 Slope Stabilization Methods ............................................................................... 7-63 8 Expansive Clays Thomas M. Petry 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 8-1 8.2 Basic Causes of the Problem ................................................................................. 8-4 8.3 Grain-to-Grain Structures .................................................................................... 8-7 8.4 Clay Moisture Potentials ....................................................................................... 8-7 8.5 Moisture and Water Movements ......................................................................... 8-8 8.6 Moisture and Soil Mass Structures ...................................................................... 8-9 8.7 Weathering Effects ............................................................................................... 8-10 8.8 Swelling and Shrinking ....................................................................................... 8-12 8.9 Shear Strength ...................................................................................................... 8-13 8.10 Variations of Properties ...................................................................................... 8-16 8.11 Geotechnical Investigations ................................................................................ 8-16 8.12 Swell Testing ........................................................................................................ 8-18 8.13 Shear Strength Testing ........................................................................................ 8-19 8.14 How to Deal with Expansive Clays .................................................................... 8-20 9 Ground Improvement Thomas M. Petry 9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 9-1 9.2 Geotechnical Investigations for Ground Improvement ..................................... 9-2 9.3 Mechanical Stabilization (Ground Improvement) ............................................. 9-3 9.4 Chemical Modification and Stabilization .......................................................... 9-13 9.5 Portland Cement Modification .......................................................................... 9-18 9.6 Fly Ash and Other Coal Combustion By-products .......................................... 9-20 9.7 Dust-Proofing and Waterproofing Agents ........................................................ 9-20 9.8 Physical Stabilization ........................................................................................... 9-22 J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved vi Geotechnical Engineering Handbook 10 Site Investigation and In Situ Tests Sanjay Kumar Shukla and Nagaratnam Sivakugan 10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 10-2 10.2 Objectives of Site Investigation .................................................................... 10-3 10.3 Stages of Site Investigation ........................................................................... 10-3 10.4 Methods of Subsurface Investigation ........................................................... 10-5 10.5 Sampling and Laboratory Testing .............................................................. 10-13 10.6 Geophysical Methods .................................................................................. 10-20 10.7 Standard Penetration Test .......................................................................... 10-26 10.8 Static Cone Penetration Test ...................................................................... 10-31 10.9 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test ................................................................ 10-37 10.10 Plate Load Test ............................................................................................ 10-38 10.11 Field Vane Shear Test ................................................................................. 10-46 10.12 Borehole Shear Test ..................................................................................... 10-48 10.13 Pressuremeter Test ...................................................................................... 10-50 10.14 Flat Dilatometer Test .................................................................................. 10-53 10.15 K Stepped Blade Test ................................................................................. 10-58 0 10.16 In Situ California Bearing Ratio Test ......................................................... 10-60 10.17 Test Methods for In Situ Unit Weight Determination ............................ 10-63 10.18 Site Investigation Work and Report .......................................................... 10-67 10.19 Soil Variability ............................................................................................. 10-71 10.20 Field Instrumentation ................................................................................. 10-71 11 Vibration of Foundations Braja M. Das and Nagaratnam Sivakugan 11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 11-1 11.2 Vibration Theory: General ............................................................................ 11-2 11.3 Shear Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio .......................................................... 11-12 11.4 Analog Solution for Vertical Vibration of Foundations .......................... 11-13 11.5 Rocking Vibration of Foundations ............................................................ 11-18 11.6 Sliding Vibration of Foundations .............................................................. 11-24 11.7 Torsional Vibration of Foundations .......................................................... 11-26 12 Geosynthetics Ahmet H. Aydilek and Tuncer B. Edil 12.1 Geosynthetic Structures and Manufacturing Types ................................... 12-1 12.2 Functions of Geosynthetics .......................................................................... 12-6 12.3 Durability and Aging of Geosynthetics ..................................................... 12-43 13 Geoenvironmental Engineering Nazli Yesiller and Charles D. Shackelford 13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 13-1 13.2 Containment Materials ................................................................................. 13-5 13.3 Containment Systems ................................................................................. 13-18 13.4 Contaminant Transport .............................................................................. 13-36 13.5 Measurement of Material Properties ......................................................... 13-44 13.6 Vertical Barriers ........................................................................................... 13-52 J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved Contents vii 14 Railway Track Bed Foundation Design Gurmel S. Ghataora and Michael Burrow 14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 14-1 14.2 Definitions ..................................................................................................... 14-3 14.3 Track Bed ....................................................................................................... 14-4 14.4 Failure of Rail Sleeper Support System ..................................................... 14-12 14.5 Track Bed Remediation .............................................................................. 14-16 14.6 Comparison of Design Methods ................................................................ 14-21 14.7 Track Bed Investigation .............................................................................. 14-36 15 Special Foundations R.L. Handy and David J. White 15.1 What Makes a Foundation Special? ............................................................. 15-1 15.2 Classic Foundation Methods ........................................................................ 15-3 15.3 Treatments and Methods Used in Special Foundations ............................ 15-6 15.4 Mechanics of Load Transfer ....................................................................... 15-19 15.5 Application of Specialty Foundations: Wind Turbines ............................ 15-20 15.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 15-22 Index ...................................................................................................................................... I-1 J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved Preface The record of the first use of soil as a construction material is lost in antiquity. For years, the art of soil engineering was based only on past experience. With the growth of science and technology, the need for better and more economical structural design and construction became critical. This led to a detailed study of the nature and properties of soil as it relates to engineering during the early part of the 20th century. The publication of Erdbaumechanik by Karl Terzaghi in 1926 gave birth to modern soil mechanics. The term geotechnical engineering is defined as the science and practice of that part of civil engineering which involves natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. In a general sense it includes the application of the fundamental principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to foundation design problems. This handbook on geotechnical engineering is designed for use by geotechnical engineers and professionals in other civil engineering disciplines as a ready reference. It consists of 15 chapters which cover a wide range of topics including engineering properties of soil, site investigation, lateral earth pressure, shallow and deep foundations, slope stability, expansive soil and ground improvement, geosynthetics and environmental geotechnology, railroad base foundations, and other special foundations. For complete coverage, a chapter on foundation- soil interactions and a chapter on the vibration of machine foundations also are included. All the chapters were written by various authors well recognized in their areas of specialty. As is the case in all handbooks, final equations are presented in the text without detailed mathematical derivations in many instances. The reader can, however, refer to the references provided at the end of each chapter for further elaboration. I sincerely hope that this handbook will be a useful tool for practicing engineers and others interested in the field of geotechnical engineering. I am truly grateful to all the authors for their contributions. Thanks also are due to Tim Pletscher, Senior Acquisitions Editor and Stephen Buda, Vice President for New Business Development at J. Ross Publishing for their initiative and patience during the development of this book. Braja M. Das J. Ross Publishing; All Rights Reserved ix