GEOSYNTHETICCLAYLINERSFORWASTECONTAINMENTFACILITIES © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Geosynthetic Clay Liners for Waste Containment Facilities Editors Abdelmalek Bouazza DepartmentofCivilEngineering,MonashUniversity,Melbourne, Victoria,Australia John J. Bowders DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofMissouri, Columbia,Missouri,USA © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CoverphotocourtesyofGeofabricsAustralasiaPty.Ltd. CRCPress/BalkemaisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness ©2010Taylor&FrancisGroup,London,UK TypesetbyMacmillanPublishingSolutions,Chennai,India PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyAntonyRowe(ACPIGroupCompany),Chippenham,Wiltshire Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationortheinformationcontainedhereinmaybereproduced, storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,by photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutwrittenpriorpermissionfromthepublisher. Althoughallcareistakentoensureintegrityandthequalityofthispublicationandtheinformationherein, noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublishersnortheauthorforanydamagetothepropertyor personsasaresultofoperationoruseofthispublicationand/ortheinformationcontainedherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Geosyntheticclaylinersforwastecontainmentfacilities/editedby AbdelmalekBouazza&JohnJ.Bowders. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferences. ISBN978-0-415-46733-9(hardback:alk.paper)–ISBN978-0-203-85523-2(e-book) 1. Sanitary landfills–Linings. 2. Claysoils–Permeability. 3. Geosynthetics. 4. Engineeredbarriersystems(Waste disposal) I. Bouazza,Abdelmalek. II. Bowders,JohnJ.(JohnJoseph),1957– TD795.7.G44752010 (cid:1) 628.44564—dc22 2009037858 Publishedby: CRCPress/Balkema P.O.Box447,2300AKLeiden,TheNetherlands e-mail:[email protected] www.crcpress.com–www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk–www.balkema.nl ISBN:978-0-415-46733-9(Hardback) ISBN:978-0-203-85523-2(eBook) © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Table of Contents Preface xi ListofContributors xiii 1. Backgroundandoverviewofgeosyntheticclayliners 1 1 Introduction 1 2 Background 1 2.1 Bentonite 1 2.2 Geotextiles 2 2.3 Geomembranes 2 2.4 Otherassociatedmaterials 2 2.5 GCLmanufacturing 2 3 CurrentGCLproducts 4 3.1 NonreinforcedGCLs 4 3.2 ReinforcedGCLs 6 4 Testmethodsandproperties 6 4.1 Physicalproperties 6 4.2 Hydraulicproperties 7 4.3 Mechanicalproperties 8 4.4 Enduranceproperties 9 4.5 GenericspecificationforGCLs 10 5 Equivalencyissues 12 6 Summary 15 Acknowledgements 15 References 15 2. Durabilityandlifetimeofthegeotextilefibersofgeosyntheticclayliners 17 1 Introductionandbackground 17 2 Structureanddegradationofpolymerfibers 17 2.1 PolymersusedforGCLfiberreinforcement 18 2.2 FiberconfigurationofGCLreinforcement 18 2.3 Oxidativeeffectsonpolymerstructure 18 2.3.1 Tertiarycarbonatoms 19 2.3.2 Crystallinity 19 2.3.3 Orientation 19 3 Stabilizationofpolypropylene(andpolyethylene)fibers 19 4 Antioxidantsdepletionmechanisms 20 4.1 Chemicalreactions 20 4.2 Physicalloss 20 4.3 Specificsurfacearea 21 5 Externalenvironmentaleffectsonoxidation 21 5.1 Energylevel 21 5.2 Oxygenconcentration 21 5.3 Liquidchemistry 22 5.4 Appliedfiberstresses 22 5.5 Annealing 22 V © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC VI TableofContents 6 Durabilityevaluationandspecification 23 6.1 Performancetesting 23 6.2 Incubationmethodsforsubsequentindextesting 25 6.3 Indextestmethodsandprocedures 25 7 Geomembranesandgeofilm 26 8 Summaryandconclusions 26 8.1 Polymerstructure,degradationandstabilization 26 8.2 Laboratoryperformanceincubationandtesting 27 8.3 Indextestingwithasuggestedspecification 27 8.4 Conclusionandrecommendation 27 Acknowledgement 28 References 28 3. MineralogyandengineeringpropertiesofBentonite 31 1 Introduction 31 2 Mineralogyofsmectite 31 2.1 Crystallinestructure 31 2.2 Morphologyandfabric 33 2.3 Layercharge 34 2.4 Exchangeablecations 35 2.5 Sodiumactivationofbentonites 36 3 Adsorptionandswellingbehavior 37 3.1 Short-rangehydrationmechanisms 37 3.2 Crystallineandosmoticswellingregimes 38 3.3 Crystallineswelling 38 3.4 Osmoticswelling 43 4 Engineeringpropertiesandtheirmeasurement 44 4.1 Mineralogicalanalysis 45 4.2 Cationexchangecapacity 45 4.3 Surfacearea 47 4.4 Particleandgranulesizedistribution 47 4.5 Watercontent 48 4.6 Swellindex 48 4.7 pH,electricalconductivityandcarbonatecontent 50 4.8 Fluidloss 50 5 Closingremarks 50 References 50 4. Hydraulicconductivityofgeosyntheticclayliners 55 1 Geosyntheticclaylinersinbottomlinersandtopcovers 55 2 Definitions 55 2.1 Hydraulicconductivity 55 2.2 Unsaturatedhydraulicconductivity 57 2.3 Permittivity 58 2.4 Intrinsicpermeability 59 3 Hydraulicconductivitytesting 60 3.1 Typesofpermeameters 61 3.2 Criticalissues 62 4 IntactGCLs 63 4.1 WhydoGCLsprovideextremelylowlevelsofhydraulicconductivity? 63 4.2 HydraulicconductivityofdifferenttypesofGCLs 64 4.3 Testingconditions 66 5 OverlappingGCLsandotherspecialsituations 67 5.1 OverlappingGCLs 67 5.2 Durabilityagainstenvironmentaleffects 68 6 Chemicalcompatibility 70 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC TableofContents VII 6.1 Clay-chemicalandbentonite-chemicalinteractions 70 6.2 Considerationofthetestingconditions 71 6.3 Effectsofinorganicchemicals–concentrationandvalenceofcations 72 6.4 Effectsofwasteleachates 76 6.5 Effectofthesequenceofpermeants 76 6.6 Modifiedbentonites 80 Acknowledgments 81 References 81 5. ContaminanttransportthroughGCL-basedlinersystems 85 1 Introduction 85 2 ModelingcontaminanttransportthroughGCLs 85 2.1 Advection 87 2.2 Diffusion 87 2.3 Sorption 87 3 EstablishingdiffusionandsorptionparametersforGCLs 87 3.1 Experimentalproceduresanddatainterpretation 87 3.2 Specifiedvolumediffusion(SVD)test:Inorganiccontaminants 90 3.3 Constantstressdiffusion(CSD)apparatus:Inorganiccontaminants 90 3.4 Volatileorganiccompound(VOC)diffusiontesting 91 4 Factorsinfluencingdiffusionandsorptioncoefficients 91 4.1 Effectofe ondiffusioncoefficient:Inorganiccontaminants 91 B 4.1.1 EffectoftypeofGCLmanufactureoninorganicdiffusioncoefficients 92 4.2 DifferenttypesofdissolvedcontaminantsincontactwiththeGCL 92 4.2.1 Inorganiccontaminants 92 4.2.2 Organiccontaminants 93 4.2.3 Effectoftemperatureonvolatileorganiccompounddiffusionand sorptioncoefficients 94 4.3 Constantstressvs.specifiedvolumediffusiontesting 94 5 Summaryofdiffusionandsorptioncoefficientstouseforpreliminarydesigns 94 6 ContaminantmigrationassessmentsofGCLlinersystems 96 6.1 EquivalencyofGCLandCCLlinersystems 96 6.2 AssessingGCL/CCLequivalencyformunicipalsolidwastelandfills:Example 97 7 Conclusions 102 References 102 6. Chemico-osmosisandsolutetransportthroughGeosyntheticclayliners 105 1 Introduction 105 2 Thermodynamicsofirreversibleprocesses 106 3 Experimentaldata 111 4 Physicalinterpretationoftransportparameters 115 5 RoleplayedbyosmoticphenomenaincontaminanttransportthroughGCLs 120 6 Conclusions 123 References 124 7. Gaspermeabilityofgeosyntheticclayliners 127 1 Introduction 127 2 Background 127 3 Gastransportduetoadvection 128 4 Gaspermeameter 130 5 Gaspermeability 130 5.1 Effectofmoisturecontent 131 5.2 Effectofhydrationanddesiccation 133 5.3 Effectofwet-drycyclesandionexchange 135 6 Conclusions 141 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC VIII TableofContents References 141 8. Internalandinterfaceshearstrengthofgeosyntheticclayliners 143 1 Introduction 143 2 Materials 144 2.1 GCLreinforcementtypes 144 2.2 Geomembranetexturingtypes 145 3 GCLShearstrengthtestingequipment 145 3.1 Shearstrengthtestingalternatives 145 3.2 Specimensizeforthedirectsheardevice 146 3.3 GCLspecimenconfinementforthedirectsheardevice 147 3.4 Normalandshearloadapplicationforthedirectsheardevice 149 4 Testingprocedures 150 4.1 Moistureconditioning 150 4.2 Shearingprocedures 151 5 GCLInternalshearstrength 153 5.1 Shearstress-displacementbehavior 153 5.2 Preliminaryshearstrengthoverview 154 5.3 VariablesaffectingGCLinternalshearstrength 155 5.3.1 Effectofnormalstress 155 5.3.2 GCLReinforcement 156 5.3.3 Moistureconditioning 158 5.3.4 Sheardisplacementrate 158 5.4 GCLinternalshearstrengthvariability 160 6 GCL-GMInterfaceshearstrength 160 6.1 Shearstress-displacementbehavior 160 6.2 PreliminaryGCL-GMinterfaceshearstrengthoverview 162 6.3 VariablesaffectingGCLinternalshearstrength 162 6.3.1 Normalstresseffects 162 6.3.2 EffectsofGCLreinforcementtypeandGMpolymer 163 6.3.3 EffectofGMtexturing 163 6.3.4 Moistureconditioning 164 6.3.5 Sheardisplacementrate 164 6.4 GCLinternalshearstrengthvariability 165 7 Laboratoryandfieldshearstrengthcomparisons 165 8 Conclusions 166 References 166 9. Slopestabilitywithgeosyntheticclayliners 169 1 Introduction 169 2 Methodsofanalysis 170 2.1 Simplifiedwedgeprocedures 171 2.2 Possiblefailuresurfaces 171 2.3 Representativecross-sectionsandthree-dimensionalgeometries 171 2.4 Effectivenormalstresses 172 2.5 Displacementandstraincompatibility 172 2.6 Seismicloads 173 3 Designcriteria 174 4 DesignshearstrengthforGCLs 176 4.1 Unconsolidatedversusconsolidatedbentonite 176 4.2 Undrainedversusdrainedshear 177 4.3 Peakversusresidualshearstrength 180 4.4 Internalversusinterfaceshearstrength 182 4.5 Summaryofdesignshearstrength 184 5 Approachestomitigatestabilityproblems 184 5.1 Flatteningslope 185 5.2 Buttressingslope 185 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC TableofContents IX 5.3 Reinforcingslope 185 5.4 Reducingfluidpressures 185 5.5 Replacingweakshearsurfaces 185 5.6 Reducingconsequencesoffailure 185 6 Designexamples 186 6.1 Examplecoverslope 186 6.1.1 Designcheckforbasecase 186 6.1.2 Designcheckforconservativeandextremecases 190 6.2 Examplebaselinerslope 192 6.2.1 Designcheckforfinalclosuregeometry 193 6.2.2 Designcheckforinterimwastefillinggeometry 194 6.3 Examplelinerconstruction 198 7 Conclusions 199 References 200 10. Hydrologicperformanceoffinalcoverscontaining 203 1 Introduction 203 2 CoversrelyingsolelyonaGCL 203 2.1 GeorgswerderstudyinGermany 203 2.2 Esch-BelvalstudyinLuxembourg 205 2.3 AurachstudyinGermany 206 2.4 WisconsinstudyinUSA 206 3 CoverswithaGCL-compositebarrier 207 3.1 WisconsinstudyinUSA 207 3.2 CaliforniastudyinUSA 207 3.3 OregonstudyinUSA 208 4 Practicalimplications 208 4.1 Cationexchangeandhydraulicconductivity 208 4.2 Promotinghydrationandpreventingdehydration 209 4.3 Conditionsprecludingcationexchangeandincreasesinhydraulicconductivity 209 4.4 RecommendedusageofGCLsinfinalcovers 211 Acknowledgement 211 References 211 11. Oxygendiffusionthroughgeosyntheticclayliners 213 1 Introduction 213 2 Background 213 3 Oxygendiffusionmeasurement 214 4 Oxygendiffusioncoefficient 215 5 Concludingremarks 221 References 221 12. FieldobservationsofGCLbehaviour 223 1 Introduction 223 2 GCLperformanceincompositelinersystems 223 3 Casehistoriesoffieldperformance 224 3.1Physicalintegrity 224 3.2Containmentcapability 231 4 Conclusions 237 References 237 Authorindex 239 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Preface Geosyntheticclaylinershavetakenaprominentroleincivilengineeringinfrastructure,inpartic- ular, in the waste containment industry. Increasingly stringent regulation of pollution and waste productionworldwidehasdriventheneedtoisolatecontaminantsposingathreattohumanand environmentalhealthbyusingengineeredbarriersystems.Overthepasttwodecades,geosynthetic claylinershavegainedwidespreadacceptanceforuseinsuchbarriersystems.Nowadays,theyare oftenusedasacomponentofprimaryandsecondarybaselinersorfinalcoversystemsinmunicipal solid-wastelandfillsaswellasinregulatedindustrialstorageandminingwaste-disposalfacilities. This book gives a comprehensive and authoritative review of the current state of practice on geosynthetic clay liners in waste containments. It provides an insight into individual materials (bentoniteandtheassociatedgeosynthetics)andthemanufacturingprocess.Thisisfollowedbythe coverageofimportanttopicssuchashydraulicconductivity,chemicalcompatibility,contaminant transport,gasmigration,shearstrengthandslopestability,andfieldperformance. Theideaofthisbookgelledwhenthefirsteditor,Bouazza,spentasabbaticalwithBowdersat theUniversityofMissouriin1999.Weoriginallythoughtourprofessionlackedacomprehensive documentonthebackground,behaviourandapplicationsoftheserelativelynewlow-permeability barriers.Thisbookhasbeenalongtimeincomingandmanydevelopmentsinourunderstandingof geosyntheticclaylinersandintheproductsthemselveshaveoccurredsowehaveaskedsomeofthe leadingpeopleingeosyntheticclaylinersresearchandapplicationstocontributetheirexpertisefor thistreatise,whichwehopewillconstituteavaluablereferenceintheyearstocomeforpractitioners andmanufacturersaswellasresearchers.Weareextremelyindebtedandmuchappreciativeofthe timeandeffortofeachofthecontributingauthors. Onlythroughtheirwillingnesstosharetheir knowledge is this book made possible. Finally, we wish to express our appreciation and thanks tothereviewersfortheirhighlycompetentefforts.Lastbutnotleast,wewouldliketogratefully acknowledgethelong-suffering,patienceandencouragementofoureditor,Mr.JanjaapBlomof TaylorandFrancispublishers. AbdelmalekBouazza,MonashUniversity,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia JohnJ.Bowders,UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,Missouri,USA XI © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Contributors CRAIG.H.BENSON,Professor,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,University ofWashington,Seattle,USA ABDELMALEK BOUAZZA,Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia JOHN J. BOWDERS Jr, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,USA ANDREADOMINIJANNI,ResearchFellow,DITAG,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy WILL P. GATES, Research Fellow, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne,Australia ROBERT B. GILBERT, Professor, Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering,UniversityofTexas,Austin,USA Y. GRACE HSUAN, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University,Philadelphia,USA TAKESHIKATSUMI,AssociateProfessor,GSGES,KyotoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN Jr, Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and SustainableEngineering,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,USA GEORGER.KOERNER,DirectorDesignate,GeosyntheticInstitute,Folsom,USA ROBERTM.KOERNER,Professor,Director,GeosyntheticInstitute,Folsom,USA CRAIGB.LAKE, AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofCivilandResourceEngineering,Dalhousie University,Halifax,Canada WILLIAMJ.LIKOS,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering, UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,USA MARIOMANASSERO,Professor,DITAG,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy JOHNS.McCARTNEY,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofCivil,EnvironmentalandArchitec- turalEngineering,UniversityofColorado,Boulder,USA R.KERRYROWE,Professor,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,Queen’sUniversity,Kingston, Canada J. SCALIA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison,USA XIII © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC