www.gtk.fi G GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND E O [email protected] L O Special Paper 49 G I C A 2011 L S U R V E Y O F F I N L A This 125th Anniversary Publication of the Geological Survey of N D Finland (GTK) aims at elucidating, through 33 short articles, • the current focus of research and development at GTK. We S have defined our current strategy to cover three areas of soci- p e etal impact: (1) mineral resources and raw material supply, (2) c i a energy supply and the environment, and (3) land use and con- l P struction, which also form the subsections of this anniversary ap e publication, in addition to a section on geodata management r 4 and database development. 9 • K In reaching the milestone of 125 years, we can state that our e i j o anniversary slogan, “forever young”, is justified by the vital- N ity and increasing societal impact of the organization and our e n research focusing on sustainable development of our society. o n e GTK is currently the centre of geoinformation and applied n a geoscientific expertise in Finland, and we have very active n d international co-operation and project export worldwide. P e k k a A . N u r m i ( e d s .) ISBN 978-952-217-136-8 (hardcover) Geoscience for Society ISBN 978-952-217-137-5 (PDF) ISSN 0782-8535 125th Anniversary Volume Edited by Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Introduction to GTK projects in Mozambique 2002–2007 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49 Geoscience for Society 125th Anniversary Volume Edited by Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi Geological Survey of Finland Espoo 2011 1 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Yrjö Pekkala, Tapio Lehto & Matti I. Lehtonen Front cover: Barite crystals (BaSO) from Korsnäs lead mine in western Finland 4 at a depth of 190 m. Field width 5 cm. Photo: Kari A. Kinnunen. ISBN 978-952-217-136-8 (hardcover) ISBN 978-952-217-137-5 (PDF) ISSN 0782-8535 Tampereen Yliopistopaino Oy – Juvenes Print 2011 2 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Introduction to GTK projects in Mozambique 2002–2007 CONTENTS Preface ...........................................................................................................................................7 Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi 1 Research promoting sustainable use of raw materials ........................................................11 Introduction .................................................................................................................................12 Pekka A. Nurmi Metallic mineral resources of Fennoscandia ...............................................................................13 Pasi Eilu Tectonic and metallogenic evolution of the Fennoscandian shield: key questions with emphasis on Finland ............................................................................................................23 Raimo Lahtinen, Pentti Hölttä, Asko Kontinen, Tero Niiranen, Mikko Nironen, Kerstin Saalmann and Peter Sorjonen-Ward Isotope geology and Fennoscandian lithosphere evolution .........................................................35 Hannu Huhma, Hugh O’Brien, Yann Lahaye and Irmeli Mänttäri Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project ................................................................................................................................49 Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group New down-hole geophysical techniques in exploration of deep ore deposits .............................59 Jarkko Jokinen, Arto Korpisalo and Hannu Hongisto Modelling the gold potential of Central Lapland, Northern Finland ...........................................71 Vesa Nykänen, Tuomo Karinen, Tero Niiranen and Ilkka Lahti Evaluation and modelling of natural stone rock quality using ground penetrating radar (GPR) .................................................................................................................................83 Hannu Luodes and Heikki Sutinen Geochemistry in the characterisation and management of environmental impacts of sulfide mine sites .....................................................................................................................91 Päivi M. Kauppila, Tommi Kauppila, Jari Mäkinen, Susanna Kihlman and Marja Liisa Räisänen New mineral processing applications at GTK ...........................................................................103 Saija Luukkanen, Reijo Kalapudas, Väinö Hintikka, Raisa Neitola and Tero Korhonen Geological resource accounting and associated research ..........................................................115 Saku Vuori, Soile Aatos and Mari Tuusjärvi The importance of geological natural resources to the economy of Finland ............................121 Olavi Holmijoki 3 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Yrjö Pekkala, Tapio Lehto & Matti I. Lehtonen 2 Research for the energy sector ............................................................................................129 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................130 Keijo Nenonen Geological and geophysical investigations in the selection and characterization of the disposal site for high-level nuclear waste in Finland ................................................................131 Seppo Paulamäki, Markku Paananen, Aimo Kuivamäki and Liisa Wikström Geological safety aspects of nuclear waste disposal in Finland ................................................145 Lasse Ahonen, Veikko Hakkarainen, Juha Kaija, Aimo Kuivamäki, Antero Lindberg, Markku Paananen, Seppo Paulamäki and Timo Ruskeeniemi Energy potential of Finnish peatlands .......................................................................................153 Kimmo Virtanen and Samu Valpola The sufficiency of peat for energy use on the basis of carbon accumulation ............................163 Markku Mäkilä Carbon accumulation in pristine and drained mires ..................................................................171 Markku Mäkilä Geoenergy research and its utilization in Finland .....................................................................179 Jarmo Kallio, Nina Leppäharju, Ilkka Martinkauppi and Maarit Nousiainen CO capture and geological storage applications in Finland .....................................................187 2 Soile Aatos, Lauri Kujanpää and Sebastian Teir 3 Research serving urban needs and land use planning ......................................................195 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................196 Hannu Idman Opportunities for urban geology in Finland: mapping, databases and data processing for land use planning and construction ......................................................................................197 Ossi Ikävalko, Jaana Jarva, Jukka Ojalainen, Antti Ojala and Timo Tarvainen Construction suitability and 3D architecture of fine-grained sedimentary deposits in southern Finland – examples from Espoo .................................................................................205 Antti E. K. Ojala Arsenic in the Pirkanmaa region, southern Finland: From identification through to risk assessment to risk management .................................................................................................213 Timo Ruskeeniemi, Birgitta Backman, Kirsti Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, Jaana Sorvari, Heli Lehtinen, Eija Schultz, Ritva Mäkelä-Kurtto, Esko Rossi, Kati Vaajasaari and Ämer Bilaletdin Geological and geochemical methods in environmental risk assessment in urban areas: examples from Finland and Russia............................................................................................229 Timo Tarvainen, Jaana Jarva, Johannes Klein, Samrit Luoma and Birgitta Backman Evaluation of natural geochemical background levels ..............................................................237 Nils Gustavsson, Kirsti Loukola-Ruskeeniemi and Markku Tenhola 4 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Introduction to GTK projects in Mozambique 2002–2007 Evaluation of the relationship between the natural geological environment and certain chronic diseases in Finland ............................................................................................247 Anne Kousa, Kirsti Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, Maria Nikkarinen, Aki S. Havulinna, Marjatta Karvonen, Elena Moltchanova, Jaana Sorvari, Heli Lehtinen, Esko Rossi, Timo Ruskeeniemi, Birgitta Backman, Ritva Mäkelä-Kurtto, Marjatta Kantola, Tarja Hatakka and Heimo Savolainen Use of groundwater flow, contaminant transport and geochemical modelling in environmental risk assessment of an industrial site at Kokkola, Western Finland ....................263 Soile Backnäs and Gijs van den Dool Isotope tracing in groundwater applications ..............................................................................279 Nina Kortelainen Geosciences supporting climate change adaptation in the Baltic Sea region ............................285 Johannes Klein and Philipp Schmidt-Thomé Geological modelling of the Baltic Sea and marine landscapes ................................................293 Aarno Tapio Kotilainen and Anu Marii Kaskela Sediment geochemistry and use of the seafloor of the gulf of Finland .....................................305 Henry Vallius Geological controls on subarctic conifer distribution ...............................................................315 Raimo Sutinen, Paavo Närhi, Maarit Middleton, Mari Kuoppamaa, Vesa Juntunen, Eija Hyvönen, Pekka Hänninen, Ari Teirilä, Markku Pänttäjä, Seppo Neuvonen, Osmo Äikää, Matti Piekkari, Mauri Timonen and Marja-Liisa Sutinen 4 Geodata management and database development ............................................................327 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................328 Hannu Idman The implementation of GTK’s management and distribution system for geoscience data .......329 Niina Ahtonen, Katja Lalli, Esa Kauniskangas and Jouni Vuollo Bedrock databases – a step toward standardized geological information .................................335 Jouni Vuollo, Jouni Luukas, Mikko Nironen, Niina Ahtonen and Esa Kauniskangas Collection, management and distribution of data on surficial deposits .....................................345 Jukka-Pekka Palmu Airborne geophysical data management and interpretation ......................................................349 Meri-Liisa Airo, Heikki Hautaniemi, Juha Ville Korhonen, Maija Kurimo and Hanna Leväniemi 5 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 48 Yrjö Pekkala, Tapio Lehto & Matti I. Lehtonen 6 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49 Preface Geoscience for Society 125th Anniversary Volume Edited by Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49, 7–9, 2011 PREFACE Geoscience has a long and glorious history in Finland (Tanskanen 1986, Haapala 2005). The first geological studies were already performed and academic dissertations written at the Academy of Turku, the first uni- versity in Finland founded in 1640. The first Chair in Geology and Min- eralogy was established at the University of Helsinki in 1852. During the historical period of the Enlightenment, geoscience received more emphasis and funding, as it could show direct benefits to society and its rulers. The beginning of geological survey activities in Finland was closely connected with the father of Finnish mineralogy, Nils Norden- skiöld, who operated as the General Intendant of the Mining Council during 1823–1855. He was the one who showed initiative and pursued the beginning of geological surveys and exploration funded by the gov- ernment. His initiatives were fulfilled by founding a geological office to the government’s Mining Council in 1870. The work of geologists and surveyors was effective: they mapped much of Southern Finland and made some promising findings of gold and other commodities. In 1885, Emperor Alexander III approved the suggestion of the Finn- ish Senate to establish the Geological Commission, which started its operations in 1886 and was renamed the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) in 1945. Pioneering research by J.J. Sederholm, who led the Geological Commission for 40 years (1893–1933), as well as Wilhelm Ramsay and Pentti Eskola, both professors at the University of Hel- sinki, were the key to establishing an international reputation for Finn- ish geoscience. During the past 125 years, GTK has developed as an independent research organization of applied geoscience with the same main objectives to serve the nation with new geological raw materials, and better knowledge of the Earth and its processes for the sustainable growth and well-being of our citizens. Societal and technological development has had a great impact on geoscience. The turning point was World War II, after which the de- mand for geological raw materials rapidly rose due to the rebuilding of Europe. We are now living an era of even strongereconomic growth, as the large populations of Asia, South America and Africa are building a better life and well-being for their nations. Modern society requires the use of mineral-based products in the construction and maintenance of housing and other buildings, earth structures, railroads, road networks, power lines, pipelines and other infrastructure. Industrial production and the manufacture of machinery, equipment, vehicles and ICT tech- nology are largely based on the utilisation of mineral-based materials. Mineral fertilisers and agricultural machinery are also vital to food pro- duction. The availability of natural resources and resource-based indus- trial production has become essential to prosperity and well-being in our rapidly changing world. In parallel with economic growth, environmental problems are in- creasing, and global change is speeding up. Anthropogenic impacts on the Earth’s systems have reached geological dimensions. The demand for geological resources is growing, but at the same time the demand to reduce the environmental impact of the extractive industry is also 7 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49 Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi being pursued. The safe supply and price of energy is becoming a more important factor in mining and metallurgy, as well as in our everyday life. Emission-free energy production, restoring energy for further use, the capture of gaseous emissions and their sequestration in geological structures, and the safe handling of nuclear waste in bedrock present new challenges to our science. We have to develop resource, energy and water efficiency in all our activities. Climate change will lead to an in- tensification of the global hydrological cycle and will have a major im- pact on regional water resources. These are all issues where geoscience plays a fundamental role in close association with other sciences and expertise. Our knowledge of Finnish geology and natural resources has con- siderably increased during the last few decades. GTK has mapped the bedrock and Quaternary deposits, as well as mineral resources in great detail using modern geological, geochemical and geophysical tech- niques, so that Finland today has one of the best geological databas- es in the world. We have recently compiled countrywide datasets of seamless bedrock information at the scale of 1:200,000, and completed low-altitude airborne geophysical (200 m line spacing and 40 m terrain clearance), regional geochemical (80 000 samples), and reflection seis- mic surveys at the crustal scale and at high resolution on the main ore- potential formations. Isotopic age determinations have been performed at GTK since the 1960s, and we now have accurate ages for about thou- sand samples, which is a key to studying the complex evolution of the Finnish Precambrian. GTK currently plays a vital role in providing geological expertise to the government, the business sector and the wider community. Specific responsibilities include the promotion and implementation of sustain- able approaches to the supply and management of minerals, energy and construction materials, and to ensure environmental compliance through monitoring, assessment and remediation programmes. GTK also contributes to a wide range of international geoscience, mapping, mineral resources and environmental monitoring projects, and is active in developing multidisciplinary research programmes with universities, government agencies and stakeholders across related sectors. 8 Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49 Preface GTK has defined in its current strategy to cover three areas of soci- etal impact: (1) mineral resources and raw material supply, (2) energy supply and the environment, and (3) land use and construction, which also form the subsections of this anniversary publication, in addition to a section on geodata management and database development. Our research and development targets are set to meet the demands of so- cietal decision-making and the business sector. Research activities at GTK are currently coordinated through six programmes, each having a five-year duration. The programmes are: (1) mineral potential, (2) eco- efficient mining, (3) energy, (4) marine geology and global change, (5) urban geology, and (6) groundwater and aggregates. GTK’s generic de- velopment is focused on the development of our services, geoinforma- tion and modelling, data processes and data quality, as well as mineral potential assessment and exploration techniques. This 125th Anniversary Publication aims at elucidating, through 33 short articles, the current focus of research and development at GTK. In reaching the milestone of 125 years, we can state that our anniversary slogan, “forever young”, is justified by the vitality and increasing soci- etal impact of the organization and our research focusing on sustainable development of our society. GTK is currently the centre of geoinforma- tion and applied geoscientific expertise in Finland, and we have very active international co-operation and project export worldwide. Espoo November 6, 2010 Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to express our gratitude to the assistant scientific editors, Pentti Hölttä and Antti Ojala, and the technical editor, Päivi Kuikka-Niemi, for their input in the editing process of this volume. The English was revised by Roy Siddall. REFERENCES Haapala, I. 2005. History of Finnish bedrock research. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P. A. & Rämö, O. T. (eds.) Precambrian Geology of Finland: Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Developments in Precambrian Geology 14. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 681–701. Tanskanen, H. (ed.) 1986. The development of geological sciences in Finland. Geo- logical Survey of Finland, Bulletin 336. 344 p. 9