‘Nothing but the Truth’: Genre, Gender and Knowledge in the US Television Crime Drama 2005-2010 Hannah Ellison Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) University of East Anglia School of Film, Television and Media Studies Submitted January 2014 ©This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation from the thesis, nor any information derived therefrom, may be published without the author's prior, written consent. 2 | P age Hannah E lliso n Abstract Over the five year period 2005-2010 the crime drama became one of the most produced genres on American prime-time television and also one of the most routinely ignored academically. This particular cyclical genre influx was notable for the resurgence and reformulating of the amateur sleuth; this time remerging as the gifted police consultant, a figure capable of insights that the police could not manage. I term these new shows ‘consultant procedurals’. Consequently, the genre moved away from dealing with the ills of society and instead focused on the mystery of crime. Refocusing the genre gave rise to new issues. Questions are raised about how knowledge is gained and who has the right to it. With the individual consultant spearheading criminal investigation, without official standing, the genre is re-inflected with issues around legitimacy and power. The genre also reengages with age-old questions about the role gender plays in the performance of investigation. With the aim of answering these questions one of the jobs of this thesis is to find a way of analysing genre that accounts for both its larger cyclical, shifting nature and its simultaneously rigid construction of particular conventions. Building on the work of Jason Mittell this thesis sets out to engage with the way genres manage to lay claim to diversity while maintaining an ineffable quality of recognisability. In order to do this the thesis in the main is a case study of six different shows from across the genre: Bones, Lie to Me, The Mentalist, Psych, Ghost Whisperer and Medium. Through narrative textual analysis of both the shows and their ancillary and para-texts a case is made for additions to Mittell’s work. I posit a theory based on a continuum of graduated articulation. This is a way of mapping conventions prevalent in a genre without reducing them to a selection of identical aesthetic or narrative tropes. As part of this the method re-centralises narrative in the understanding of television genre. 3 | P age Hannah E lliso n Table of Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………2 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………..……...…3 List of Illustrations………………………………………………………………………………………………….……4 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………....5 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….……………..…6 Chapter One: Genre, Audience and the Development of the Psychic-Scientist Continuum………...…25 What Is Crime Drama?.......................................................................................40 Defining Boundaries: Method and Methodology of Text Selection…………..……46 Pre-texts and Contexts: Incorporating the Shows into the Established Genre Canon…………………….…………………………………….……..62 Chapter Two: Tune in Next Time: Promotional Material, Network Identity and Establishing Industrial Context……………………………………..……….77 Origins: Source Material as Authenticating and Situating Texts……………..……..83 Where, When, Why: Scheduling Data and Generic Formation……………..……….91 Next Week On…: Episode Trailers as Situating Texts……………………………………..98 Chapter Three: Psychics vs. Scientists: Crime Drama and the Intuition/Reason Binary…………….…....112 Reason and Intuition as Part of the Continuum…………………………………..……….118 Scientific Knowledge and the Crime Drama………………………………………..….…….123 Experiential Knowledge and Reason Masked as Intuition…………………………....137 Empathetic Knowledge…………………………………………………………………………….…..147 Opening Titles and the Relevance of Tone……………………………………………….…..155 Chapter Four: Consultant Procedurals and Masculine Identity………………………………………………….….168 Masculinity and Institutions of Authority in Crime Drama……….………………….177 Learned Behaviour, Pedagogy and its Role in the Development of the Masculine Consultant……….………………….….186 Family and Fatherhood……………………………………………………………………….…..….193 Bones and Masculine Female Identity…………………………………………….………..…199 Chapter Five: Consultant Procedurals and Feminine Identity………………………………………………………206 Feminine Protagonists and the Gothic………………………..………………………….…..208 Aesthetics……………………………………………………………………………………..………….…223 Motherhood and Biology……………………………………………………………………..….….231 Psychic Investigators as Daughters……………………………………………..…………...…234 As Wives and Mothers………………………………………………………..…………………..….238 Chapter Six: The Centrality of Symbolic Justice…………………………………………………………………..…..…243 Justice Across the Continuum…………………………………..……………………………....260 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….…...268 Genre Theory………………………………………………………………………………………….…..276 Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…284 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………..285 4 | P age Hannah E lliso n List of Illustrations Figure 1: Screenshot from syfy.com…………………………………………………………….……..96 Figure 2: Screenshot from Lie to Me promo………………………………………………………..100 Figure 3: Screenshot from Lie to Me promo………………………………………………………..101 Figure 4: Screenshot from Lie to Me promo………………………………………………………..101 Figure 5: Screenshots from Bones Promo…………………………………………………………….102 Figure 6: Screenshots from Bones Promo…………………………………………………………….103 Figure 7: Screenshots from The Mentalist Promo…………………………………………….….104 Figure 8: Screenshots from Psych Promo………………………………………………………….….106 Figure 9: Screenshots from Ghost Whisperer Promo……………………………………….…..107 Figure 10: Screenshots from Medium Promo……………………………………………………….108 Figure 11: Screenshots from Bones……………………………………………………….……………..129 Figure 12: Screenshots from Lie to Me…………………………………………………………….…..129 Figure 13: Screenshot from Bones……………………………………………………….……………….130 Figure 14: Screenshot from Psych……………………………………………………….………………..140 Figure 15: Screenshots from Psych……………………………………………………….………….…..142 Figure 16: Screenshots from Bones Title Sequence……………………………………………….157 Figure 17: Screenshot from Bones Title Sequence……………………………………………..….157 Figure 18: Screenshot from Lie to Me Title Sequence…………………………………….……..158 Figure 19: Screenshots from Lie to Me Title Sequence…………………………………………..158 Figure 20: Screenshot from Lie to Me Title Sequence…………………………………….……..159 Figure 21: Screenshots from The Mentalist Title Sequence…………………………….……..160 Figure 22: Screenshots from Psych Title Sequence…………………………………….…………..161 Figure 23: Screenshots from Ghost Whisperer Title Sequence……………………………....163 Figure 24: Screenshots from Medium Title Sequence…………………………………….….…..164 Figure 25: Screenshot of the kitchen in Medium………………………………………………..….224 5 | P age Hannah E lliso n Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank my family for their support in every possible way. I could not have done this without them. Sorry for the lack of serifs, ma. I would also like to thank Prof Yvonne Tasker for her invaluable supervision and for helping me understand exactly what it was I was trying to do here; additionally, Dr Su Holmes for her insights. Finally, I want to thank my friends. Firstly, the people of TAMSoNH for listening to me go on about crime shows when they had their own stuff to think about and keeping me afloat through this whole process. Secondly, the people at Cin City, you guys helped me give my brain a break just when it needed it. “There’s a button to your left”. 6 | P age Hannah E lliso n Introduction The scene is an all too familiar one; a jogger out for his morning run stumbles on something and falls. As he looks down the camera follows his view and finds not a stray branch or some broken paving but a corpse. The US procedural crime drama has become such a staple of the television landscape that even via UK freeview broadcast there are at least four different shows on offer every day. Lunchtime repeats of the Mentalist(CBS, 2008-present) are followed by evening showings of one if not more of the CSI(CBS, 2000-present)franchise. The same can be said for the original US market where during the years 2005-2010 every network had at least one procedural in their roster. The airing of procedural dramas has become as commonplace as soap operas and quiz shows. We have become so familiar with the tropes and conventions of the procedural that they have become the butt of jokes; from MadTV(Fox, 1995-2009) sketches about the nature of cases solved on Ghost Whisperer (CBS, 2005-2010)1to Family Guy (Fox, 1999-present)referencing Bones’(Fox, 2005-present) use of bones2. Yet despite the genre’s ubiquity relatively little has been written about it. There are a handful of works on the CSI franchise, but considering the sheer number of texts in the genre this presents little more than a drop in ocean. It is this lack of academic interest in an area so vast and popular that I plan to redress. In doing so this thesis will investigate both the workings of the contemporary crime procedural and as part of this case study present a reworking of current methodologies for the study of television genre. I will be doing this in a US context despite residing in the UK. Though there are limitations to living outside of the market being studied, the internet offers multiple avenues for the consumption of US media in context. This will be a study of genre that encompasses para and ancillary texts so it is important to do so in the context of the country of origin; since by examining the shows in situ, a sense of how the texts work together and inform one another can be gained. There is most 1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lJz1tYRhYmI (accessed 10/09/2012) 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zi89Zt1Oir0 (accessed 10/09/2012) 7 | P age Hannah E lliso n certainly space for a study of procedural shows as they are broadcast and consumed in other markets, but that is not the aim of this work. Moreover, while the procedural has made a huge mark on the UK television schedule, America still produces more television; and with this being a study interested in the importance of variety in genre and the need for comparison, a larger market is more suited to the methodology. The pervasiveness of the crime drama is a fairly recent phenomenon; of course crime dramas have always been part of the television schedule but a decade ago they were purely primetime fodder (apart from syndicated airings of 70s staples like Columbo(NBC/ABC, 1968-2003), shows so ubiquitous that their ‘crime’ elements were rendered benign). In fact a decade ago CSI was new and innovative and almost every other crime show either featured uniformed cops on the streets or well-meaning middle class lawyers. NYPD Blue (ABC, 1993-2005) and The Practice (ABC, 1997- 2004) epitomised the kinds of crime programming on offer. With CSI came a change, a turn in the cycle of television towards a new (although as this thesis will argue, perhaps renewed is a better word) format for telling the crime story; the consultant procedural. CSI quickly became one of the most watched shows on US television3 while courtroom dramas like The Practice were drawing to a close. At this time NBC was finding success with its Law & Order (NBC, 1990-2010)franchise and started to move into consultant procedurals with Crossing Jordan(NBC, 2001-2007). Soon CBS was capitalising on CSI with CSI: Miami(CBS, 2002-2012), CSI: NY(CBS, 2004-present) and the addition of both Without a Trace(CBS, 2002-2009) and Numb3rs(CBS, 2005-2010) to its roster. Each one presented the same story about institutional policing, that it was somehow broken but also that it was capable of fixing the problem itself. It was an institution deserving of the public’s continued faith. However, in the period before this, it had been courtrooms and lawyers that had dominated US criminal dramas. The professionals of The Practice and L.A. Law (NBC, 1986-1994) had worked diligently to fight a corrupt system of law 3 At its height it averaged28 million viewers (figures gathered from ABC’s Medianet) 8 | P age Hannah E lliso n enforcers. Each week they would create new case law and ensure that the corruption seen in institutional policing did not make it into the judicial system. Cops were willing to beat suspects, frame them in order to close cases, do whatever it takes to make themselves look good. During the nineties it seemed television reflected a society that did not trust the police and saw them as bigoted, misogynist and unfit for the job. When the republicans took office there was a seed change. As conservatism grew in power so television began to change to reflect it. Part of this conservatism was the need for renewed trust in the policing institution. However, the last decade had presented the police in a consistently bad light; enter the consultant. As both an outsider and a designated part of the institution the consultant was able to solve the problem. By employing consultants the police were able to admit they had their failings but also reinstate public trust by hiring experts who could ensure the job of investigation was performed without reproach. Thus the crime drama became a genre about specialised investigators who worked on the edge of the institution. As such their method was the thing of interest. Consequently, the puzzle of the case became the reason to watch. Harking back to amateur detectives of old, these shows were as much mysteries as they were crime dramas. A televisual re-imagining of what Ina Rae Hark dubbed the “readerly clue puzzle”4. The period studied in this thesis, 2005-2010, saw the most prolific time for the production of these kinds of shows in the US. In this five year period there were twenty different shows on air at one time or another that featured a specialist investigator helping police solve crime. In this saturated market these shows were sold on the unique nature of the protagonist’s investigative practice rather than on the novelty of characters. Bones was a show about someone who could learn about a person from nothing but their skeleton, Lie to Me (Fox, 2009-2011) presented a character who could tell when you were lying by watching you. The genre became dominated by 4Ina Rae Hark, "Impossible Murderers: Agatha Christie and the Community of Readers," in Theory and Practice of Classic Detective Fiction, ed. Jerome; Delamater and Ruth Prigozy (London: Greenwood Press, 1997). P111 9 | P age Hannah E lliso n method. It is this period of intense production and intense desire to set each show apart from the others that I became interested in how all these shows still clung to a set of formulae and conventions so strongly developed as to become clichéd. Clichés many TV viewers now recognise; montages of scientific processes, interrogations where unorthodox questions are the norm, public scenes of confession, investigators dreaming crimes. I became fascinated by trying to understand what crime drama was when it was all these things, because despite their differences there was something that always made them instantly recognisable as such. Supposedly, audiences knew a procedural when they saw one but no one seemed to be interesting in investigating what it was that held them together generically, what this ineffable quality might be. These questions lend themselves well to the dual approach of this thesis; a thesis with aims to both ask specific questions of the consultant procedural but also untangle the complexity of how these conventions work together and inform one another in the process of forming genre. In recent years genre has fallen out of favour somewhat within television studies. Following the work of Jason Mittell5 and a handful of others such as Jane Feuer6 and Stephen Neale7, works now nearly a decade old, genre has become something assumed. Genres are successful perhaps because of this quality, it has been suggested that audiences respond to the comfortable familiarity; however, in terms of academic work, to rest easy and assume that a genre has been ‘dealt with’ is remiss. If anything older genres are more likely to be the focus of shifts and changes as producers try to reinvigorate them for an audience that is believed to be becoming increasing aware. Nevertheless, it seems even when genre itself is brought into question a limited number of exemplar texts have become the default way to examine these issues. This leads to numerous works that hope to define crime television as either CSI or the Wire(HBO, 2002-2008), or define comedy as either The Office(BBC, 2001-2003) or Friends(NBC, 1994-2004). However, there is no 5Jason Mittell, Genre and Television : from Cop Shows to Cartoons in American Culture (New York: Routledge, 2004). 6Jane Feuer, "Genre Study and Television," in Channels of discourse, reassembled : television and contemporary criticism, ed. Robert Clyde Allen (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). 7Stephen Neale, "Questions of Genre," Screen 31, no. 1 (1990). 10 | P age Hannah E lliso n such thing as an exemplar text, especially when examples are drawn from the relatively small pool of ‘quality television’. US networks broadcast over 1500 hours of primetime television every year, yet only a handful of shows are ever studied. Furthermore, as Derrida argued in Writing and Difference8, there is inherent difference in repetition. According to Derrida each repetition of something the same can never be identical, all repetitions are in some way iterations, the same thing but fundamentally different due to the very nature of repetition. Nicholas Royle explains, “For something to be readable… it must carry with it a capacity to be repeated in principle again and again in all sorts of contexts, at the same time as being in some way singular every time.”9 This means not only are exemplar texts impossible because every text, no matter how much it may seem representative of all the others, is in fact still just another version, but also there is no way of making absolute statements about a genre. As this thesis will argue, the only way to make sense of genre is to allow for, and build into the method, an understanding of these fundamental differences. The method suggested here makes use of Derrida’s notions of iteration, working with the idea that difference is an inherent part of repetition, to the point that at times it is only in mapping the differences that the larger repetition can even be seen. Genres are formed on the basis of iteration, on the premise of sameness; if in sameness there is an inherent difference, than can these differences not be used to make sense of the sameness? Through exploring the slight deviations of a genre with a flexible methodology, the larger picture of uniformity can be understood and therefore a better understanding of the genre’s ideology. If television studies wants to maintain its constant push toward being recognised as separate from the study of film there needs to be more work which undertakes the task of finding ways to theories these hundreds of hours and dozens of shows. Television studies has to make space for the larger issues 8 Jacques Derrida, Writing and difference (London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978 (1981 [printing])). 9 Nicholas Royle, Jacques Derrida, Routledge critical thinkers (London ; New York: Routledge, 2003). P68