G E N E R A L HISTORY OF AFRICA • V I H Africa since 1935 U N E S C O General History of Africa Volume I Methodology and African Prehistory (Editor J. Ki-Zerbo) Volume II Ancient Civilizations of Africa (Editor G . Mokhtar) Volume III Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century (Editor M . El Fasi) (Assistant Editor I. Hrbek) Volume IV Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (Editor D . T . N i a n e ) Volume V Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Editor B . A . Ogot) Volume VI T h e Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (Editor J. F. A . Ajayi) Volume VII Africa under Foreign Domination, 1880-1935 (Editor A . A . Boahen) Volume VIII Africa since 1935 (Editor A . A . Mazrui) (Assistant Editor C . Wondji) U N E S C O would like to express its gratitude to the former Empress of Iran, to the Holy See and in particular to the Government of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya for their generousf inancialc ontributions to the publication of the General History of Africa. U N E S C O International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa GENERAL HISTORY OF AFRICA-VIII Africa since 1935 EDITOR ALI A. MAZRU1 ASSISTANT EDITOR C. WONDJI HEINEMANN-CALIFORNIA- UNESCO Africa since IQ35 First published in 1993 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris and Heinemann Educational a division of Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Ltd Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford O X 2 8EJ P M B 5205, Ibadan P O Box 54314, Nairobi P O Box 10103, Village Post Office, Gaborone FLORENCE PRAGUE MADRID PARIS ATHENS BOLOGNA MELBOURNE SYDNEY AUCKLAND SINGAPORE JOHANNESBURG TOKYO PORTSMOUTH N H (USA) CHICAGO SAO PAULO First published 1993 in the United States of America by the University of California Press 2120 Berkeley W a y , Berkeley California 94720, United States of America © U N E S C O 1993 Maps drawn by John Gilkes Heinemann Educational ISBN 0435 948148 U N E S C O ISBN 92-3-102758-1 University of California Press ISBN 0-520 03920-3 2 L C N 78-573 1 T h e ideas and opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of U N E S C O . T h e designation employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of U N E S C O concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. Filmset in upt Monophoto Ehrhardt by Selwood Systems, Midsomer Norton Printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk 93 94 95 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 i Contents Key for maps ix List of figures xi List of plates xi Acknowledgements for plates xvi Preface xix Amadou-Mahtar M ' B O W , Director-General of U N E S C O (1974-87) Description of the project xxv Bethwell A . O G O T , President of the International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa (1978-83) Note to the reader xxvi 1 Introduction 1 Ali A . M A Z R U I Section I — Africa in a decade of world conflicts, 1935-45 2 The Horn and North Africa, 1935-45: crises and change 29 Tayeb C H E N N T O U F 3 Tropical and equatorial Africa under French, Portuguese and Spanish domination, 1935-45 58 Majhemout D I O P in collaboration with David B I R M I N G H A M , Ivan H R B E K , Alfredo M A R G A R I D O and Djibril Tamsir N I A N E 4 Africa under British and Belgian domination, 1935-45 76 Michael C R O W D E R Section II — The struggle for political sovereignty: from IÇ45 to independence 5 Seek yef irstt he political kingdom 105 Ali A . M A Z R U I 6 North Africa and the Horn 127 Ivan H R B E K 7 West Africa, 1945-60 161 Jean S U R E T - C A N A L E and A . Adu B O A H E N v Contents 8 Equatorial West Africa 192 Elikia M ' B O K O L O 9 The struggle for political sovereignty in Eastern Africa, 1945 to independence 221 Michael T W A D D L E in collaboration with Lucile R A B E A R I M A N A N A and Isaria N . K I M A M B O 10 Southern Africa since 1945 249 David C H A N A I W A Section III — Underdevelopment and the struggle for economic independence 11 Economic changes in Africa in the world context 285 Catherine C O Q U E R Y - V I D R O V I T C H 12 Agriculture and rural development since 1935 317 Maxwell O W U S U 13 Industrial development and urban growth, 1935-80 357 Pierre K I P R É 14 Comparative strategies of economic decolonization in Africa 393 Adebayo A D E D E J I Section IV — Socio-political change since independence 15 Nation-building and changing political structures 435 J. Isawa E L A I G W U in collaboration with Ali A . M A Z R U I 16 Nation-building and changing political values 468 Joseph K I - Z E R B O , Ali A . M A Z R U I and Christophe W O N D J I in collaboration with A . A d u B O A H E N Section V — Socio-cultural change since ig^S 17 Religion and social evolution 501 Tshishiku T S H I B A N G U in collaboration with J. F. Ade AJAYI and Lemin S A N N E H 18 Language and social change 522 Alfa I. S O W and Mohamed H . A B D U L A Z I Z 19 The development of modern literature since 1935 553 Ali A . M A Z R U I in collaboration with the late Mario de A N D R A D E , M'hamed A L A O U I A B D A L A O U I , Daniel P. K U N E N E and Jan VANSINA vi Contents 20 Arts and society since 1935 582 Jan V A N S I N A 21 Trends in philosophy and science in Africa 633 Ali A . M A Z R U I and J. F. Ade AJAYI in collaboration with A . A d u B O A H E N and Tshishiku T S H I B A N G U 22 Education and social change 678 Aklilu H A B T E and Teshome W A G A W in collaboration with J. F. Ade AJAYI Section VI — Pan-Africanism: liberation and integration since IÇ35 23 Africa and its diaspora since 1935 705 Joseph E . H A R R I S in collaboration with Slimane Z E G H I D O U R 24 Pan-Africanism and regional integration 724 S . K . B . A S A N T E in collaboration with David C H A N A I W A 25 Pan-Africanism and liberation 744 Edem K O D J O and David C H A N A I W A Section VII — Independent Africa in world affairs 26 Africa and the capitalist countries 769 CHINWEIZU 27 Africa and the socialist countries 798 Iba Der T H I A M and James M U L I R A in collaboration with Christophe W O N D J I 28 Africa and the developing regions 829 Locksley E D M O N D S O N 29 Africa and the United Nations since 1945 871 Edmond K w a m K O U A S S I 30 Towards the year 2000 905 Ali A . M A Z R U I Members of the International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa 934 Biographies of authors 936 Bibliography 941 Index 981 vii Key for maps BAULE Ethnic groups ZAMBIA States F E Z Z Ä N Regions SAHARA Natural regions International boundaries • Capital cities Ubangui Rivers Additional information and keys are given on individual maps . ix List of figures i.i T h e political m a p of Africa in 1935 2-3 10.1 Major mineral resources in Southern Africa 250 1.1 Italy's territorial claims in Africa (1940 plans) 290 11.2 T h e financing of capital investment in French-speaking black Africa and Madagascar, 1946-73, in billions of i960 constant C F A francs 2ç8 1.3 S C O A ' s profits, 1910-60 301 11.4 Investment and savings in Africa, 1960-83, excluding oil-exporting countries 307 11.5 Regional and sub-regional organizations for co-operation and inte- gration in Africa 311 12.1 T h e risk of desert advance in Africa as recorded after the U N conference on desertification, 197 34 < 12.2 T h e distribution of cattle in Africa, with an inset m a p showing the main tsetse areas 338 12.3 Patterns of international labour migration in Africa, 1946-52 12.4 Major mineral workings in Africa 352 12.5 T h e distribution of cash crops in Africa 353 13.1 A pre-colonial city: O n d o 386 14.1 Trends in per capita food production: the world, the L D C s and Africa (base 1974-6) 401 14.2 M U L P O C regional groupings in Africa 410 14.3 Regional economic groupings in Africa 411 14.4 West Africa: Highway Master Plan ( E C A / E C O W A S ) 412 14.5 Eastern and Southern Africa Preferential Trade Area: Highway Master Plan 414 17.1 Distribution of Christianity, Islam and traditional African religion in Africa, where each religion claims 50 per cent or more of the country's population $04 18.1 Distribution of oficial languages in Africa 52g 22.1 School enrolment in Africa, 1960-80, adjusted gross enrolment ratios by level 688 22.2 School enrolment in Africa, i960 and 1980, adjusted gross enrol- ment ratios by level and sex 688 22.3 Trends in primary-school enrolment in Africa, 1960-80, showing primary population and primary enrolment in millions, together with the adjusted gross primary enrolment ratio (percentage) 689 29.1 Togoland in 1919 - Franco-British Declaration, London, 10 July 1919 874 xi