Gender Perspectives in Law 2 Marko Davinić Svetislav Kostić Editors Gender Competent Public Law and Policies Gender Perspectives in Law Volume 2 SeriesEditors DragicaVujadinović,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,Serbia IvanaKrstić,FacultyofLaw,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,Serbia The series ‘Gender Perspectives in Law’ discusses all-encompassing gender- competent legal questions. Having a gender-competent approach is required when considering the highest values and normative standards of modern international, European,andnationallaw.Raisingawarenessaboutgenderequalityissuesmeans investing in the creation, interpretation, and implementation of legislation that is more fair, just, and equitable and will also contribute to a comprehensive under- standing of social reality, as well as to gender-competent political, legal and eco- nomicdecision-makingandpublicpolicies. The series accepts monographs focusing on a specific topic, as well as edited collectionsofarticlescoveringaspecificthemeorcollectionsofarticles. ć (cid:129) ć Marko Davini Svetislav Kosti Editors Gender Competent Public Law and Policies Editors MarkoDavinić SvetislavKostić UniversityofBelgrade UniversityofBelgrade Belgrade,Serbia Belgrade,Serbia ThisprojecthasbeenfundedwithsupportfromtheEuropeanCommission.Thispublication [communication]reflectstheviewsonlyoftheauthor,andtheCommissioncannotbeheld responsibleforanyusewhichmaybemadeoftheinformationcontainedtherein. ISSN2731-8346 ISSN2731-8354 (electronic) GenderPerspectivesinLaw ISBN978-3-031-14705-0 ISBN978-3-031-14706-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14706-7 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerland AG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseof illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors, and the editorsare safeto assume that the adviceand informationin this bookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface The book series Gender Perspectives in Law is a systemic attempt to provide all-encompassing gender-competent legal knowledge. The term gender-competent legalknowledgeisusedtoaccentuatethereconsiderationofdifferentfieldsoflegal knowledge from the point of gender equality approach and with offering relevant andconvincingargumentsinthatregard.Thistermissometimesreplacedwiththe term “gender-sensitive,” which also refers to awareness about the importance of gender equality approach and to its implementing in theoretical and scientific knowledge production. Having a gender-competent approach in legal education is required when considering the highest values and normative standards of modern international,European,andnationallaw.Raisingawarenessaboutgenderequality issues among researchers and academic scholars in the field of law and other multidisciplinary fields relevant for legal theory and practice, educating in a gender-sensitive manner law students (future lawyers, judges, prosecutors, public officials, members of parliament, and governmental bodies), as well as students of humanities-social sciences, means investing in the creation, interpretation, and implementation of legislation that ismore fair, just,and equitable. Prosecutors and judgesinparticular,butalso otherlegalprofessionalsinallfieldsoflegalpractice, publicadministration,andpolicydecision-makingneedtobetrainedandsensitized inordertoencourageagender-sensitiveapproach.Thiswillcontributetoamorerich and comprehensive understanding of social reality, as well as to gender-competent political,legal,andeconomicdecision-makingandpublicpolicies.Inotherwords,it meansinvestingintothefuturebasedonmoregenderjusticeandmoresocialjustice andhumanrightsprotectioningeneral.Intheend,itwillhelpfulfilltheessenceof contemporarylaw—equalrespectandprotectionforallindividuals,whichleadsto theirequalopportunitiesanddiminishesthepossibilityofgenderdiscrimination. This book series, Gender Perspectives in Law, attempts to cover all relevant subjects of legal knowledge from a gender equality perspective. The plural desig- nation is entitled because there is a plurality of feminist understanding of gender equality issues generally speaking and insofar also within the law. The call for papers was open for professionals in legal, political, sociological, and historical v vi Preface fields of interest with an attempt to cover, as much as possible, specific relevant topics,inordertoprovideanoverviewofthegendercompetentdeconstructingand reconsidering the way they are articulated in the dominant thought, i.e. the main- stream within the law. The authors in the series’ volumes try to establish a gender equalityapproachtodifferent fields of lawwhiletaking into considerationspecific issues of their interest and attempting to consider chosen different aspects of legal knowledgeandpracticeinaparadigmaticgender-competentmanner.Theyattempt tocriticallyreconsiderthedominantmoldsoflegalknowledgeandpresentinnova- tive gender-sensitive and gender-competent insights relating to different issues withinallfieldsoflaw,inordertointroducenewresearchtopicsrelevantforgender equalityinlaw,as well asto stimulatethe development ofa legal and institutional framework for achieving gender equality in real life. The degree to which main- streamknowledgehasbeenreconsideredfromagenderequalityperspectivediffers between contributors. Moreover, a variety of relevant legal subjects and other closelyrelatedsubjectmattersarecoveredinvaryingdegreesbytheselectedtexts. The book series Gender Perspectives in Law encouraged scholars and experts fromdifferentfieldsoflawandhumanities-socialsciencestoreconstructtheirlegal andmultidisciplinaryknowledgefromthestandpointofgenderequality.Thisbook series shouldinspirefurtherattemptsofthiskind,asareconsiderationoflegaland multidisciplinary knowledge from a gender perspective has become an axiomatic task.Ifcontemporarylawisdefinedprimarilyfromthehumanrightspointofview, thenitisnecessarytotakeagenderequalityperspective;thehumanrightsfounda- tion of law cannot be regarded as the civilizational standard without also incorpo- ratingwomen’srightsandgenderequalityapproachingeneral,articulatingthemin themainstreamlegalandpoliticalthought,andeliminatinggender-basedbiasesand discriminationwithinthedominantlegalsystems.ThebookseriesGenderperspec- tivesinLawrepresentstheaddedvaluetotheprojectErasmus+Strategicpartnership in Higher Education, called “New Quality in Education for gender equality - Strategic Partnership for the development of Master’s Study program LAW AND GENDER-LAWGEM”. ThesecondbookintheseriesGenderPerspectivesinLaw,whichistitledGender Competent Public Law and Policies, offers a new perspective on public law and publicpolicies.Thecollectionofpapersbeginswithaverysophisticateddiscussion ongender perspectives inconstitutionallaw,whichcansupportgenderjustice,but also perpetuate patriarchal norms. The book covers an analysis of the role of the European Ombudsman in the area of gender discrimination. Particular attention is giventotheimportanceofmainstreaminggenderintopublicpolicies.Thus,thelegal and institutional frameworks of Spain and Serbia are presented, which can be an inspirationtosomeothercountries.Anotherimportantaspectcoveredinthebookis ananalysisofsystemicdifferencesbetweentheaveragewagesofwomenandmenin the six Western Balkans countries. The book offers a discussion on female genital mutilation as a highly gendered crime based on extreme versions of the rigid patriarchalethnicandreligiousnormsandcustoms.Itisanalyzedthroughthelenses of the Istanbul Convention, as a tool to tackle violence against women. Particular attention is given to the femicide, its definitions, forms, and phenomenological Preface vii characteristics. Femicide has been acknowledged recently and is still facing inade- quate judicial response in many countries. A special focus is given to German and Serbianexperiencesinacknowledgingfemicideandcombatingitthroughdifferent measures.Finally,theimportanceofstalkinglawshasbeenpresented,asstalkingis ahighlygenderedcrimeandmanystatesfailtocombatitadequately.Thecollection ofessaysofferedinthisbookwillbeofinteresttoallthoseworkinginthefieldof publiclaw,andpolicymakers,aswellastostudentsandacademicswhocanbroaden and deepen their research on different legal issues of public law and policies from genderperspectives. Thepapersdealwithverydifferenttopicsrelatedtothefieldofpubliclaw.The converging aim and axis is gender equality—its clarification, articulation, and promotionwithinpubliclawtheoryandpractice.Interestingandindicativeenough isthefactthatthereareauthorsfromdifferentcountriesandcontinents.Theglobal relevanceofthegenderequalityperspectiveinlegaleducation,legislation,andlegal professions has been expressed and confirmed in the content and authorship of thisbook. This book includes papers written by Susanne Baer, Marko Davinić, Branko Radulović and Vanesa Hervías-Parejo, Nikola Ilić, Ivana Marković, Aleida Luján Pinelo,KosanaBekerandVidaVilić,andSusanneStrandandRamunėJakštienė. Susanne Baer considers constitutional law or constitutionalism in terms of its twofoldrole:itcanhelpachievegenderjustice,butitcanalsoperpetuatepatriarchal norms.Constitutionalismhasbeenfacedwithtremendousdevelopmentsininterna- tionallawregardingwomen’srights,anditcaneitherusethesechangesforgender equality purposes or abuse them as decorum. According to the author, the contro- versies discussed in the paper affect both fundamental rights and the foundational structuresofconstitutionalism.Shestatesthattakinggenderintoaccountrequiresan understanding of constitutional law’s gendered elements, grounded in the diverse andchangingrealitiesinwhichpeoplelive.Thisincludeswomendisadvantagedby heteronormative stereotypes, as well as men defined by hegemonic masculinity, peoplelabeledassexualminoritiesbecause theydeviatefromagenderednorm,as wellastranssexualandintersexualpeoplewhochallengethenotionofnaturalsexual difference,whichinformsmuchofsexdiscrimination.Theauthorcriticallyremarks thatgenderhasrarelybeensystematicallystudiedinconstitutionallaw,atleastnotin mainstream legal studies. She also assumes that feminist legal gender studies and similarcriticalworkexposethenatureofsexinequalityintheoriesofthestateandin the design of constitutions, and thus stimulate discussing gender as a concern in constitutiondraftingaswell asinconstitutional lawaspracticedtoday. Theauthor admitsthatfeministcriticalreconsiderationofconstitutionallawallowsustobetter understand what constitutional law does to perpetuate sex inequality, and what constitutionallawcandotoendit,therebystrengtheninggenderjustice.Theauthor addresses the legal subject and citizenship, the meaning of equality, intersectional inequalities, and diversity in law; she also considers issues of violence and the oppressive ideas of the private realm of marriage and the family, as well as participation and representation in public matters. In addition, she addresses the structural aspects of constitutionalism, namely democracy, the rule of law, the viii Preface welfare state, and, from more recently also actual aspects—sustainability and the environmentwelivein.ConsideringconstitutionalismincontextleadsBaertoraise issues of legitimacy, the public-private distinction, post-national constitutionalism, and the challenge of merely decorative constitutional law. The fundamental rights discussion has extended from the legal subject to the relationship between dignity, liberty,andequality,andtheunderstandingofequalityanddiversity.Theauthoralso raisesthequestionofthefutureofconstitutionalism. MarkoDavinićanalyzestheroleandcontributionoftheEuropeanOmbudsman intheareaofgenderdiscrimination.Hisanalysisismainlybasedoncasestudies,as well as on the European Ombudsman’s strategic initiative in this area. The author remindsreadersthatEuropeanUnioncitizenswhoconsiderbeingvictimsofgender discriminationattheEUlevelcanaddresstheCourtofJusticeoftheEU(CJEU),as the main authority regarding the interpretation and proper implementation of EU law.However,theyalsohavetheopportunitytoaddresstheEuropeanOmbudsman regardinggender discrimination committedbyEUinstitutions,bodies,offices,and agencies.Theauthoranalyzesthetopicwithinthreemainparts:thefirstpartoutlines EU legislation on gender equality; the second part is dedicated to the origin and developmentoftheEuropeanOmbudsmananditsbasiccompetencies;finally,inthe third, main part, the most important cases from European Ombudsman’s practice regardinggenderequalityandprotectionagainstgenderdiscriminationareanalyzed. The author points out that unlike most of the national ombudsmen who represent onlyanadditionalmeansofcontrolinrelationtothejudicialauthorities(duetothe provisionsonexhaustionofalllegalremedies),thisisnotthecaseattheEUlevel. TherecoursetotheCJEU(whichisinprogressorcompleted)precludessubsequent activities of the European Ombudsman in the same case. This means that citizens and organizations need to choose between addressing the CJEU and the European Ombudsman, considering the basic features and procedures of both these institu- tions. Notwithstanding the small number of cases the European Ombudsman has dealt with in the area of gender discrimination since its foundation, this institution hasmanagedtoopenmany importantquestions andtoimprovethepracticeofEU institutions, bodies, offices, and agencies regarding gender equality within the European Union. In this way, Davinić concludes that it has become a significant complementary tool in the protection of gender equality and the elimination of genderdiscriminationatthesupranationallevel. BrankoRadulovicandVanesaHerviascontributedwithatextonmainstreaming gender into public policies from the perspective of Spain and Serbia. The authors aimtohighlightaspectsoftheSpanishsystemongendermainstreamingthatcanbe successfully transferred to Serbia and similar countries. The comparison between these two countries is based on the fact that Spain ranks among the top European countries according to the Gender Equality Index, while Serbia lags under the EU averageinoverallgenderequality.Furthermore,whileSpainhasdevelopedmethods to strengthen the integration of the gender perspective in all government programs and policies, Serbia still doesnothave a systemic approach to introducing gender- relatedaspectsinpublicpolicies.Theauthorsfirstpresentthehistoricalbackground and key obstacles to gender mainstreaming in both countries. They then present a Preface ix legal and institutionalframework for gender equality and gender mainstreaming in their countries. The main part deals with Spanish gender mainstreaming tools and policymakingmeasures.Thefollowingbestpracticesarepresented:strategicplans, equalityplansincompanies,corporateequalityawardsandcorporatesocialrespon- sibility policies, equality plans in companies, business award in equality, gender mainstreaming programs, education laws that mention the fulfillment of effective genderequalityandequalityofresults,urgentmeasuresinthelaboragainsttheglass ceiling,genderimpactreports,gender-responsivebudgeting,andgenderquotas.The authors highlight these measures as those that had a substantial effect and enabled effectivegendermainstreaminginpublicpolicymakinginSpain.Finally,theauthors assesslessonsfromtheSpanishexperiencethatarerelevantforSerbiatoimplement gender-competent public policies. Some existing policies in Serbia are reviewed, such as annual work gender equality plans or programs, gender equality risk managementplans,balancedgenderrepresentationrequirementsinthemanagement andsupervisoryboards,gender(equality)impactassessment,andthetoolrelatedto thecollectionanddisseminationofrelevantdatadisaggregatedbygender. Nikola Ilić analyzes the underlying causes of the gender pay gap in WB6 countries.Theauthorassumesthatingendereconomics,therearethreerootcauses of the gender pay gap: human capital, compensating differentials, and discrimina- tion.Onaverage,mencanearnmorethanwomenduetotheirknowledgeandskills, but also due to the discrimination against women in the labor market and working place. A closer analysis of relevant similarities and dissimilarities between WB6 countries, and their social and legal norms, combined with the gender economics approach, provides a plausible answer to the question of underlying causes. Simi- larities in the gender pay gap are a result of the shared history of gender discrimi- nationduetopatriarchalheredity,sharedpoliticalculture,sharedeconomicculture, and human capital or quality tied to individual productivity capacity. The author considers a few possible influencing factors regarding gender pay gap. Today, women are more likely to attend and graduate from university than men, meaning thattheexistinggenderpaygapcannotbeexplainedbytheeducationlevel.Onthe otherside,on-the-jobtrainingandworkexperiencecanexplainthegenderpaygap toacertainextent,asmenaremorelikelytoreceiveon-the-jobtrainingthanwomen. Moreover,menaremorelikelytohavecontinuityatthesamejobandthusgetmore trainingandexperiencethanwomen,asaresultofpregnancyandmaternityleave.In that circumstance, men are able to increase their human capital and be more productive than women. However, this temporary and relatively small inequality inhumancapitalcannotexplainwhywomenconsistentlyearnlessthanmeninWB6 countries, even before taking pregnancy and maternity leave. The author thus considers other possible causes of the gender pay gap, such as compensating differentials and discrimination. Discrimination against women undoubtedly exists in those countries, and it seems as one of the possible underlying causes for the considerablegenderpaygap.Themaincauseisdiscriminationbasedontheshared history of patriarchy and gender segregation, which is a consequence of the men- tionedhistoricalcircumstancesandunwrittenrulesinpoliticsandeconomics.These rules were socially acceptable and tolerated for such a long time that even today,