N Ó I C A C U D E UNIVERSIDAD DE JAÉN s Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación S e A L s E e Trabajo Fin de Grado D l g S n A I I C s N CELTIC LANGUAGES IN o E i I THE EUROPEAN C d u Y CONTEXT: IRISH AND t S s E ITS RELATION WITH E D A BRITISH ENGLISH n D e I N A o M d Alumno: Carmen Ruiz Hurtado U a H r Tutor: Prof. Ventura Salazar Rodríguez G E Dpto: Filología Española D D A T L Junio, 2016 U C A F 1 LIST OF CONTENTS CELTIC LANGUAGES IN THE INDO-EUROPEAN PHYLUM CONTEXT ........4 First studies. ......................................................................................................................... 5 Origin theories ..................................................................................................................... 6 History and evolution ........................................................................................................... 6 Sub-families ......................................................................................................................... 7 Celtic languages ......................................................................................................................... 8 Origin theories and first mentions ......................................................................................... 9 History and evolution .......................................................................................................... 11 Sub-families ........................................................................................................................ 12 Continental Celtic ........................................................................................................... 13 Insular Celtic ................................................................................................................... 15 Irish Gaelic ................................................................................................................. 16 CELTIC LANGUAGES MAIN CHARACTERISTICS .............................................. 20 Phonology .......................................................................................................................... 20 Changes from IE to Celtic ....................................................................................................... 20 Fixed stress .............................................................................................................................. 20 Mutation .................................................................................................................................. 21 P/Q-Celtic ................................................................................................................................ 21 Morphology and syntax ..................................................................................................... 21 VSO word order....................................................................................................................... 22 Nominal system ....................................................................................................................... 22 Verbal system .......................................................................................................................... 22 Verb “to have” ......................................................................................................................... 23 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENGLISH AND IRISH............................................... 23 The case of “Hiberno-English” .......................................................................................... 23 Celtic borrowings in English. ............................................................................................. 24 Irish lexical borrowings on English ......................................................................................... 28 English borrowings in Irish ..................................................................................................... 32 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 37 2 3 Resumen El siguiente trabajo consiste en una descripción de las lenguas Celtas dentro del contexto Indo-Europeo, presentando una breve exposición sobre este filo lingüístico y las familias y lenguas que lo componen. Posteriormente, se ofrecerá una explicación de las teorías de origen de los Celtas y sus lenguas, al igual que se hará una clasificación por ramas de las lenguas que componen esta familia. Asimismo, se expondrán las principales características que las distinguen del resto de lenguas o son más relevantes, de manera breve, según su fonología, morfología y sintaxis. Para terminar, habrá un enfoque sobre el Gaélico Irlandés, explicando el caso del Hiberno-Irish, y haciendo una comparación de préstamos entre el Irlandés y el Inglés. Palabras clave: Indo-Europeo, lenguas Celtas, Gaélico Irlandés, Inglés, préstamos. Abstract The following dissertation is a description of Celtic languages in the Indo-European context, where a brief statement about this linguistic phylum is presented, along with the families and languages composing it. Subsequently, an explanation about the origin theories of Celts and their languages will be provided, as well as a classification of the languages belonging to this family. Additionally, the main features that distinguish this phylum from the rest, and the ones which are more relevant, will be presented in a concise manner, as far as its phonology, morphology and syntax are concerned. To conclude, the case of Irish Gaelic will be deeply explained, as well as the example of Hiberno-Irish, including a comparison of borrowings between Irish and English. Key words: Indo-European, Celtic languages, Irish Gaelic, English, borrowings. 4 Celtic languages in the Indo-European phylum context Almost half of the spoken languages worldwide belong to the Indo-European phylum, with 3 billion of native speakers. However many speakers Mandarin or Arabic have, it is still the largest language phylum, including some of the most spoken languages in the world such as English, Hindi or Spanish. This broad group has up to 4451 languages and dialects, and can be found in most of Europe and some parts of Asia. Due to the massive expansion and invasions during Colonial period, today’s Indo- European languages are present in the rest of the world, not only in Europe. We find English in North America, Oceania or Africa, or Spanish and Portuguese in South America. First studies. Indo-European studies are relatively new. European travellers who went to Indian peninsula (16th century) realised that there were similarities between Iranian and European languages, like Sanskrit, and Greek and Latin. Marcus Zuerius2 proposed in 1647 a primitive common language to these similarities: Scythian, where he included Albanian, Baltic, Celtic, Greek, Dutch, German, Latin, Persian, and Slavic. However, it was not a successful research. Evliya Çelebi3 saw similarities between German and Persian some years later, as well as Gasto Coerdoux, who worked on a comparison of Greek, Latin and Sanskrit conjugations in the 1760s. A few years later, William Jones4 added Celtic, Gothic and Persian to those studies. Apart from them, Mikhail Lomonosov5 compared Baltic, Chinese, Finnish, Iranian and Slavic. It was not until 1813 that the term “Indo-European” was coined and used for the first time by Thomas Young6. A comparison among some old languages was made by Frank 1 Data from Ethnologue (11/06/2016) 2 Dutch linguist (1612-1653) 3 Turkish traveler (1611-1682) 4 Anglo-Welsh philologist (1746-1794) 5 Russian polymath, scientist and writer (1711-1765) 6 English scientist (1773-1829) 5 Bopp7, being his work the one which marked the beginning of Indo-European languages as an academic discipline. From the 1850s up to the last third of 20th century, some remarkable authors appeared, as August Schleicher, Karl Burgmann and Kuryłowicz. Origin theories Indo-European studies have evolved a lot in the last decades, and the following conclusions have been reached. It is believed that before Indo-European languages started to spread through Europe and Asia, there was a common “mother” language named by experts as Proto-Indo-European. Scholars used a comparative method in order to make the linguistic reconstruction of the rest of Indo-European languages' evidence, as their aim was to study and show the relations and similar characteristics among those languages. That supposed language probably appeared in a region around Black or Caspian Seas and was used around 3500 and 2500 BC. History and evolution We know that Indo-Europeans lived between North Caucasus and the north of Caspian Sea during 4th millennium BC; from that time to 3500 BC, the first wave of migrations reached Ukraine, Romania, Yugoslavia and Hungary. The second wave of migrations (3000 BC) reached main parts of Central Europe, as Balkans, as well as Anatolia and north of Iran. The final movement reached Greece and oriental areas of Mediterranean. On their way, they made contact with other people whose language was substituted by the one they used. By 2000 BC the languages composing Indo-European already had enough differences among them. As far as we know, Proto-Indo-European was a fusional language, as Sanskrit and Greek show. That characteristic has developed into a more analytic kind of languages8, something that happens with English, French and Persian. There are grammatical typologies which make them very different; as a result, the similarities they share are not easily noticeable, since they had developed a lot on their own. Their relation can only be found 7 German linguist and philologist (1791-1867) 8 Fusional language: “language in which one form of a morpheme can simultaneously encode several meanings.”http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAFusionalLanguage.htm (11/26/2016); analytic language: “any language that uses specific grammatical words, or particles, rather than inflection, to express syntactic relations within sentences” http://www.britannica.com/topic/analytic-language (11/06/2016) 6 thanks to broad comparative studies. This phylum is nowadays divided into different families, which are, in alphabetical order: Albanian, Anatolian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, Italic, Tocharian and Celtic, the one on which this dissertation is focused. Sub-families Albanian and Armenian families are composed of their sole correspondent languages: Albanian, with 5’4 million of speakers from Albania, Kosovo, and some parts of Macedonia and Greece; and Armenian, which has 6 million of speakers and is the official language of Armenia. Anatolian was located in a region of Asia Minor, which primary language was Hittite, used between 1650 and 1200 BC and today extinct. Tocharian is another family which was placed as well in nowadays' Turkey. It is the least known branch, though it is understood it was used from around 8th century AD until 10th century AC, and it had two main families: Tocharian A and B. The Balto-Slavic phylum is branched into two main subdivisions: Baltic and Slavic. On the one hand, Baltic languages are Lithuanian and Latvian; Latvian is spoken by 2’5 million of speakers, while Lithuanian is used by 3’9 million of speakers. Slavic languages, on the other hand, are present in Eastern Europe, mainly in the Balkans, and some parts of northern Asia. They have 315 million of speakers and three main branches. East Slavic, with Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Rusyn; West Slavic, which includes Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, and Upper and Lower Serbian; and South Slavic, in the Balkans and with Macedonian, Bulgarian and Old Church Slavonic (now extinct) in the Eastern family, and Slovene, and Serbo-Croatian in the Western family. The Germanic family has three main groups as well, and its languages are used by more than 500 million of native speakers around the world, as well as it has many second language users. We also have three main branches. In West Germanic, we have English, German, Dutch, Low German and Afrikaans; in the North-Germanic branch, we find Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese; finally, in the East-Germanic branch, we find extinct languages such as Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic. Hellenic languages leading representative is Greek, with 13 million of speakers and spoken mainly in today's Greece. Italic is one of the main phyla too, as Germanic. It includes Romance languages as Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Galician, French, Romanian, Occitan, among others. It has around 800 million of speakers, most of them Spanish and 7 French. It also includes some nowadays extinct languages from Italic peninsulae, such as Umbrian, Oscan, Faliscan and South Picene. Latin is considered part of this family as well, as it is the “mother” of all. Finally, Indo-Iranian languages are the most major branch of Indo-European languages, since most of the largest languages as far as native speakers are concerned (+1 billion of speakers) are part of the Indo-Aryan group, where we find Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, or Marathi. There are two other branches: Iranian, with Persian, Pashto and Kurdish; and Nuristani, a smaller one, with Askanu and Kamkata-viri. Celtic languages How do we know a language is Celtic? First, not only its typological level has to be taken into account, but also its phonology, morphology and lexicon. Dr David Stitfer9 follows the next pattern: “First, a language is Celtic, if its lexemes and morphemes can be derived by specifically 'Celtic' sound laws and morphological processes from reconstructed Proto-Indo-European forms. Some of these sound laws are exclusively Celtic and can serve as very good indicators; but most sound laws are also found in other Indo-European branches and are therefore ambiguous if taken on their own; some of the so-called 'Celtic' sound laws mentioned in the literature cannot be safely postulated for Proto-Celtic, but only for the later individual languages." (Stitfer, 2008:10) Martin J. Ball mentions in his book The Celtic Languages, another definition of "Celtic language": "The genetic sense of what is a 'Celtic' language is clearly related to the ethnic in that it treats as Celtic any language lineally descended from the reconstructed proto- language." (Ball 2004:5) It is believed that Celts emerged around 3000-2500 BC when they probably started to use Proto-Celtic as their language10. Their original foundation has been a controversial topic for centuries, something that similarly happens with Indo-European. They were people who lived in Iron Age and Medieval Europe, and who had some cultural resemblances among them as their languages, nowadays known as Celtic. Their expansion and placement through 9 Dr. David Stitfer, Old Celtic Languages (Wien 2008) 10 Proto-Celtic is a supposed language mother of the next Celtic languages. 8 Europe are an undefined matter too; for instance, we have the case of those Iron Age's inhabitants in the British Isles, whose origin is still not certain. Similarly, a 19th century's theory declares that Celts were part of Urnfield (1300 AD – 750 BC) and Hallstatt Culture (800-450 BC), for iron-working had a great spread during those times. Following 450 BC, Celts might have migrated to the British Isles, as well as they expanded their territories across Central Europe during the first half of 1st millennium BC. They ended occupying a vast region of Central Europe. Origin theories and first mentions To begin with, Celts as a single tribe never actually existed; everything we know is only an idea: they were never a single nation, as they were not interested in having a state, and even in today's studies, it is rather difficult to talk about them as a single ethnic group. The most probable fact is that they were different tribes who might not even know each other, but who shared some cultural facts and traditions, and probably spoke Proto-Celtic. "'celticity' originally was more a matter of being the scion of a particular cultural and historical heritage rather than an explicit recognition of linguistic affiliation." (Martin 1992:4). As far as we are concerned, there is no such thing as a single Celtic language, and common Celtic culture; it is a metaphorical idea. Nevertheless, as it was mentioned before, there are different theories about them and their origin, of which the main ones are the following: The principal theory declares that this Indo-European culture emerged from the Urnfield Culture. Celts appeared in the Alps and occupied a region in Central Europe by the end of the second millennium BC; therefore, they were somehow connected with the Urnfield Culture, which was present in that part of the Old Continent during Late Bronze Age (1300BC – 750 BC). Its name evokes to their tradition when cremating the deceased, as they placed their ashes in urns. Innovations in agricultural and technology practices started to be carried then. This culture was the evolution of Tumulus culture and was subsequently divided into two main waves: Hallstatt and La Tène Culture, which were known thanks to their burial and pottery rites. Both cultures were solidly powerful and developed an organised society. On the one hand, Hallstatt Culture appeared around 650 BC in centre Austria. Their distinctive feature was how they produced different types of weapons, and how they started to substitute the use of bronze for ironing. These changes are perceived in burial areas, where we find ceramic objects and armament, a tradition that was distributed through the rest of occidental Europe. Some scholars consider this point as the rise of Proto-Celtic. Moreover, 9