From the Gracchi to Nero ‘Still the best introduction to Roman history’ Miriam Griffin, University of Oxford, UK ‘For a concise, factual narrative of the Roman world’s trau- matic transformation from Republic to Empire, [it] remains unsurpassed. As a foundation for university and college courses, it is invaluable.’ Richard Talbert, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA ‘Without a rival as a guide to the intricacies of Republican politics.’ Greg Woolf, University of St. Andrews, UK ‘A classic textbook: clear, authoritative and balanced in its judgements ... it has established itself as the fundamental modern work of reference for teachers, sixth-formers and university students ... it is still the best and most reliable modern account of the period.’ Tim Cornell, University of Manchester, UK ‘This book is a modern classic. It provides a clear narrative of the two centuries from 133 B.C. to 68 A.D., but it is espe- cially valuable for Scullard’s extensive footnotes which pro- vide undergraduates with both the ancient sources and the most important scholarly contributions.’ Ronald Mellor, University of California at Los Angeles, USA H. H. Scullard From the Gracchi to Nero A history of Rome from 133 b.c. to a.d. 68 With a new foreword by Dominic Rathbone London and New York First published 1959 by Methuen & Co. First published in Routledge Classics 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 1959, 1963, 1970, 1976, 1982 H. H. Scullard Foreword © 2011 Dominic Rathbone All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-84478-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–58488–4 (pbk) ISBN10: 0–203–84478–5 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–58488–3 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–84478–6 (ebk) CONTENTS chronological table x preface xxi preface to second edition xxii preface to third, fourth and fifth editions xxii foreword xxiv I Rome at the Cross-Roads 1 1. Introductory 1 2. The Growth of Rome’s Empire 2 3. The Senatorial Government 4 4. The People and the Knights 7 5. Greek Cultural Influences on Roman Life 8 6. The Effects of Wealth and Slavery 11 7. Rome’s Allies 13 8. Economic Changes and the Land Problem 16 II The Gracchi 19 1. Attempts at Reform 19 2. Tiberius Gracchus 20 3. The Land-bill of Tiberius Gracchus 22 4. The Importance of Gracchus’ Attempt 24 5. The Land Commission, Scipio Aemilianus and the Allies 25 6. The Legislation of Gaius Gracchus 27 7. The Opposition to Gaius Gracchus 30 vi contents 8. The Importance of the Gracchi 32 9. Foreign Affairs: Asia and Gaul 33 III The Rise and Fall of Marius 36 1. The Senatorial Settlement 36 2. The Metelli and Marius 37 3. The Outbreak of War against Jugurtha 39 4. The Defeat of Jugurtha 41 5. The Northern Menace and its Political Repercussions 44 6. L. Appuleius Saturninus 46 7. Marius’ Victory over the Germans 47 8. Marius’ Sixth Consulship (100 b.c.) 49 IV The Rise and Fall of Sulla 52 1. The Nineties 52 2. The Younger Drusus 53 3. The Outbreak of the Italian or Social War 54 4. The Italian or Social War 56 5. Sulpicius’ Tribunate and Sulla’s Capture of Rome 58 6. Cinna 60 7. Mithridates, King of Pontus 61 8. The First Mithridatic War 63 9. Civil War 65 10. Sullanum Regnum 67 11. Sulla’s Reforms 68 12. Sulla’s Retirement 71 V The Rise of Pompey 73 1. The Counter-revolution of Lepidus 73 2. Q. Sertorius 74 3. The Senate’s Administration 77 4. Spartacus 79 5. The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 b.c.) 80 6. Pompey’s Commands 82 7. The Pirates 83 8. The Third Mithridatic War: Lucullus 84 9. Pompey’s Victory 86 10. Pompey’s Settlement of the East 88 VI Pompey and Caesar 90 1. Crassus and Caesar 90 2. Catiline’s Conspiracy 93 contents vii 3. The Return of Pompey 95 4. The First Triumvirate 96 5. Caesar’s First Consulship (59 b.c.) 97 6. Clodius 99 7. The Renewal and Breakdown of the Triumvirate 101 8. Crassus and Parthia 105 VII The Domination of Caesar 107 1. Conditions in Gaul 107 2. The Reduction of Gaul (58–56 b.c.) 109 3. Germany and Britain (55–54 b.c.) 111 4. Revolt and Reconquest 112 5. Civil War in Italy, Africa and Spain (49 b.c.) 114 6. War in Greece, Egypt and Asia (48–47 b.c.) 116 7. The End of the Civil War 119 8. Reform and Reconstruction 121 9. Policy and Administration 124 10. Caesar’s Autocracy 125 VIII The Second Triumvirate 131 1. The Rise of Antony 131 2. The Rise of Octavian 132 3. The Second Triumvirate and Philippi 134 4. Octavian’s Consolidation of the West 137 5. Antony in the East 140 6. The Final Break and War: Actium 143 IX Economic and Social Life in Italy and the Provinces in the Late Republic 146 1. Agriculture, Industry and Trade 146 2. The Aristocracy 149 3. The Knights 151 4. Other Classes 151 5. The City 153 6. The Provinces 154 X Art, Literature and Thought in the Late Republic 159 1. Graeco–Roman Culture 159 2. Art and Architecture 161 3. The Poets 163 4. Historical Writing 166 5. Oratory 169 6. Education and Learning 170 7. Law 171 viii contents 8. Philosophy and Religion 173 XI The Augustan Principate 176 1. Octavian’s Problem 176 2. The First Settlement (27 b.c.) 178 3. The Second Settlement (23 b.c.) 180 4. Consolidation of the Principate 181 5. The Last Twenty-five Years of Augustus’ Principate 183 6. Princeps and Senate 185 7. The Executive: Magistrates and Officials 189 8. Rome and Italy 192 9. Social Reforms 195 10. Religious Reforms 197 11. Virgil, Horace and Livy 199 12. Other Writers of the Augustan Age 203 XII Frontiers and Provinces 205 1. Imperial Problems 205 2. The Army 205 3. The Eastern Frontier 208 4. Africa, Spain and Gaul 212 5. The Northern Frontier 214 6. Provincial Administration 219 7. Augustus 223 XIII Tiberius and Gaius 226 1. The Accession of Tiberius 226 2. Germanicus 228 3. The Civil Government of Tiberius 230 4. Sejanus 232 5. Provincial Affairs under Tiberius 234 6. Tiberius’ Last Years 236 7. Gaius (Caligula) 239 8. The Provincial Policy of Gaius 240 XIV Claudius and Nero 243 1. The Accession of Claudius 243 2. Claudius and the Senate 245 3. Claudius’ Centralized Administration 246 4. The Provincial Policy of Claudius 249 5. The Conquest of Britain 252 6. Court History under Claudius 255 7. Nero’s First Years 256 contents ix 8. The Administration of Seneca and Burrus 258 9. Nero the Artist 259 10. The Gathering Storm 260 11. The Provinces and Foreign Affairs 263 12. The Storm Breaks 268 XV Economic and Social Life in the Early Empire 272 1. Agriculture 272 2. Industry and Trade 273 3. Trade Beyond the Empire 277 4. General Economic Conditions 279 5. The Senatorial Class 283 6. Social Life 285 XVI Art, Literature and Religion in the Julio-Claudian Period 292 1. Architecture and Art 292 2. Post-Augustan Literature 295 3. The Writers 297 4. Philosophy and Religion 302 5. Judaism and Christianity 306 abbreviations 311 notes 313 select bibliography 396 index 399 MAPS AND TABLE The Roman Empire circa A.D. 68 xxx–xxxi The Roman Empire circa 133 B.C. 224 The Roman Empire at the Death of Augustus 224 Genealogical Tree of the Chief Members of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty 270 Italy 290