The French Revolution and the Origins of French Criminology Marc Renneville To cite this version: Marc Renneville. The French Revolution and the Origins of French Criminology. Peter Becker et Robert Wetzell. The Criminal and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in international Perspective, Cambridge university Press, 2006. ￿halshs-01390291￿ HAL Id: halshs-01390291 https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01390291 Submitted on 3 Nov 2016 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial - NoDerivatives| 4.0 International License 1 The Fretich R evo?ution and tfte Origins of French Criminology MARC RENNEVILLE Who will hdp me read the hwnan heart through its envdopos? - Louis-Sébastien 1'<\erl'ier' Does the history of French criminology still need to be \vritten' Sorne recent works assu111e that it no longer dot:s. but this certainly was not the case a short \vhile ago.2 Since World War 11, crirninology has taken a back seat to the issues surrounding cri1ninal law. ln f.-.ct, at ti111es it has been unclear whether or not criminology had its own hi5tory at all. Michel Foucault's 3 fa111ous Discipline arul P1111isll dedicated orùy a fe•v lines to the subject. Although i111porrant \vorks on the history of penitent.iary systen1s followed, Foucault's study did not give rise to ne\v research on cri111i11ological science. 4 Most likely, this \Vas because crin1inology considered a by-product of wa5 the penitentiary syste1n. \:Vithout dra\ving on any particular theory, 1 seek tO locate the origins of French criminology 'vithin the history of the state and the;: individual by focusing on the irnpacr of the revolutionary period, \Vhich bas been taken into account in histories of the pen;1] syste111 but has been curiously neglected in the history of criminological knov;Jedge. For it i~ only by resitttating the crirninological question in this period that one can try to understand the gent'Sis of the contradictory anthropologies of cri111inal la\v and the hu1nan sciences, invoh'ing the con1peting postulates of free will 1 Louis-SCba!-ricn Mcft.:K·r, Le talilr·au tir /{1ri1 ( 1782- 1ï i:l8) (1-'~ri~. l '1JO), 31t >. 2 t:hri~t.ian Dcbuysc, Fra.rtçoui: 1Jignctlè,jca1l-M ichcl Lab:tdit, aJ1d Alvaro P. Pirl.'"S. flislC'itc' ,JN .-111·.,irs sur le ai1n1• et la )Jci11t'. vol. l: De.~ Sat'l.•irJ dfff"-·' ,1la11oiio11 dr <rin1111rl-ui (Oni~ls. 19t)5); L..-.urcnt Muç_çhiclli. .. Na.issanc<.· ci.C' la crin1inol~ie." in Laurent Mu<."Chiclli, c.~d. . J-fis1<1irc· rf« la t;ril11i11<1logié'ftan(ai.sc· (P:tris. 7-15. 1995), 3 t\.tic. l1cl Fotil'ault, ."iurvri//n" tt JllU1ir (11aiss1111(t: tic Id 11riscn1) (l';ir1s, 1975; r1.·1>rinr. 19"'-JJ). 4 t\-1 ic l1clJt· 'Pi:rrut. cd., L 'intpo$$;bl_c JNÎS(Jtt: rc>,·f 1ett/1e.< .tur lt S}'stèr11r 1r11itr111u11re '"' )( JX r si(o,/e (l~ri~, 19~<>); Jai.:qui:<i-Guy l~cir, cd., LA 1>risott. Ir M_l?tte rz l'hütdtrt (C; cnc,.-.. 1() 84). 25 26 J\1arc Re1111eville and deterntinis1n. This hererogeneity of knowledge about criminality was frequently undi:rscored by Foucault. 5 Far fron1 reducing chat contradiction to a professional conAicr, Foucault considered these con1peting approaches to be strategicaUy aliin,1ed and to constitute present-day "governrnencality." 1 suggesr here rhat this functional con1paribiliry was an answer to the w.iy the crin1inal question \vas posed in France at the turn fron1 rhe eighteenth to the ninereenrh cenrury. Before rurning to tho· political-scicnr.ific conte.'Ct at the end of the eighteenth century, a fe,v historiogr:lphical are co1nn1ent~ in ordcr. llliTWEcN T\VO CESARES: WllAT lllSTOllY 1'01< CHI Ml NOl.I >(;Y~ \Vhen one tries to define the origins of cri1ninology in gener.il, nvo ques tions arise: What should be undersrood by the terni cri111ir1ology? And: Whcn did the birtb of rhis science take place? If one defines cri1ninology as a dis course chat ain1s to undertake the scientiftc study of cri1ne and crinlinals, the n1eaning of crinùnology is quit e broad. because rhis science produced many schools, each of then1 dai111ing orthodoxy and genuine scientific validiry. 1f French crin1inology is understood as the srudy of cri111inal psychology, it can be said ro begin \Vith Bénédict-Augustin Morel (1809- 73). !fit is a sociology ofd eviance, its birth can be found in the \VOrks ofEmile Durkhein1 (1858-1917). !fit is the antbropological kno\vledge of the criminal, it arises in the \Vorks of Cesare Lon1broso (1836-1909). If it consists of ta king into account the offender's personaliry i11 senrencing, then it arises \Vith the rcscarch on "psychic abnonnalities," as tonnalized in Joseph Chau111ié's circular of 1905. AU rhesc chronologies are legitinu te. But one can hardly see \vhar could prevent revisionist schen1es: Concerning cri111inal psychology, why Morel and not Prosper Lucas (1808-85)? If one defends the sociological approach, vvhy not prefer André-Michd Gue::rry (1802-66) and lus ''rnoral srntis tics" over E1nile l)urkhei111? And as far as anthropology is concerned, did not Franz-Joseph GaU ( 1758-1828) and Paul Broca anticipare (182~0) tht: path lacer taken by Cesare Lon1broso? Any dating based on a speciftc •vork lays itsclf open ro a hagiographie reading that is rcductivc and Jacks context. Tt is possible to avoid these pmblen1s by adopting a stricdy institutional approach, co1nbining reception, acade111ic teaching, and profcssionalization. 3 M 1ç)1(>) Fooaulr. "L· évolution de b no a on ·d'individu d.angcrcnx · d.a1lS l:a. psycl1i:1tr1c légale:· f)t5lli1111,·e 1·1 .11x1hé 5. no. 4 (1978): 4():>-22. of The Origi11s F,.e1ic/1 Cri111i11ology 27 The birth date of the national criminologies \VOuld then be rnore r"'cent. ln dus way, David Garland can clai111 that Englisb cri111jnology did not exisc before 1935.G But sincc the profession of the cri1ninologist still has a precarious status at the end of the t\vcnticth ccnrury, it makes n1ore scnsc co chink in terms of"schools" of.approaches, trends, or 111ethods, relatively independent fron1 the institutions. Even if one tlunk.s in terrns of schools, Alvaro Pires has noced chat the birth date of crirninology re111ains an open question,7 \Vith three pO>sible ans,vers: 1. For some aud1or>, criminology was l>orn in che second h:1lf of eightcenth cenrury, with Cesare Deccaria. alrbough be had no dear "scientific ·• pretensions i11 l1is \\rricin~;N 2. For others, criniinology did noc originate with Deccaria'sjuridical rreatise, but with the firsc scari.~rical analyses ofc rirninaliry by Guerry, Edouard Ducpériaux, and Adolphe Qul:tdet in the fi~t chi rd of the nineteenth ccntury;9 3. For most auchors, finally. crintinology was born durù1g rhe lasr chird of the nineteenth ccntury wich the .. criumvirdtc .. of the ltalian .. posicivist school. . {Lombroso. Enrico F<:rri, and Ralfaclc Garofalo). who dictarcd a shifc Îll the objccl of study, frol!l che crin1e to che criminal, and in the rncthod, from juridical reasoning to scientific experin1ent. This Jase possibiliry is highly questionable. For as soon as Lornbroso is elevaced to the position of facher of scienrific crin1inology, he is usually çriticized for n1erhodological carelessness. Nevertbeless, ofd1e rhree choices, the last is the n1ost preferable, lù even ifs on1e clifficulties appear, tnost ofa il in the de finition of;;pre-scienrific" period, which, according to l'inatel, begins \vich Pb to, Aristotle, Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles.11 Jt is certain that sevcral objective factors converged around the 1niddle of tl1e 188Us. ln 1885 the first international congress ofc rinlinal anthropology rook place in Ron1e, Garofalo (1852-1934) published his Crimiitologia, France passed the la\v on the transportation of recidivists, and the foUowing year Alexandre L1cassagnc launched the Arr:hives d'1mthropologie criminelle. 6 D.1v1<l <: arland. "The Crin1iJ1:tl and His Science: A Cririe-aJA ccounc oïrhe Fornt.1cion ofC rin1inolog)' ef at thc fu1.:;I of d1é Ni!1etl.."l"11ch CentlU')', .. lkiu'.slrjCJ11nu1J Crt1ninol~,:y 25 ( 1985): 131. 7 Alvan1 Pires, "La crin1jnologic d'hiert't d"aujoun.i'huj." in ~buysr cr al. J-iiltoirr des Sdwirs. 1:35. 8 Ed\1-in H. Sud1erlaild. Princip/a o/Crin1i1wl~y (Ph1l:id~Jphi:1, l934); Ht'nri Ellc11l'>erg1..-r. ç,;,,1ùnil~rgi~ du /M.•51 rt du p1'ken1 (Mon,rc:il. L(J 65): 0<'vid A. Jonc-;, Hutory<{Crin11'11olagy: A f,hil1>J(~pltktJI PctsfKrtii~· (LonJ011. 19R6): f.t'QC'f,,~ B. \fold a11<l TI10111:1sJ. Dernard. '/1reoreti<al l'rùninoki.l?' (Ne\\' York. IY86). 9 WiJlcn1 /\. Oonb't'r, .-411 /11trotluoio11 t<> CriH1i11okigy {Uu1don. 1933); Alfred Il. Lt11dcsnuth <'Uld Y.1'akov L("vu1, ··The ton1broc;ian l\'1ych in Crln1h1ology," A ttlé'TÎf.tn )11u111al t1f .'i<xioktgy 42. no. 5 ( t 9 37): (\53- 71. IO llQbcrt A. Nyc, 'i-lert<liry or Milieu: The Fôundations of Modem Europcan Cri111inologica.I l"hm.1W1t.~' Isi.c 67, nv. 2]8 (19ï6}: J.35-55; (~orgo Picc:i, LA cri111inolt1gie (l>aris. 1988): Rayn1u11J (;as.sin, C°ruuiul)l~it· {P:lris, 1990). 11 J. Pio;uçl. Lt 11lib:o111t'nc: crir11intl (P;:iri~. 1987). 45. 28 Nlnrr Re1111Pville Altbough the richneS.( ltid the dur:1bility of chis jo11rnal would appear to be enough co 1nark the birch of cri111inolo1,')'· '2 "cri111inology" at this ti111e '"as not hnlitcd co "critninal anthropology." To disnn» 1l1i' as• siu1ple question of vocabubry \\'Ould 111i"5 the fucc that there 'v:is an ani1natcd and complex discussion th.lt juxt;'lposcd 1nany theork-<, fmrn Lonibroso to Durkheinl. on to l'Jul Topinard (1830-1911). Gabriel T.irde, or w~gne. Conscquently. crinunolQb')' cannot be con<iden:d as "nonnil science.'' 3 'vhich Thont3S Kuhn definC'd :1.( h.1ving a 1n1ninul con<en5us on objects and 1nethods. 13 ln1te.1d. th•· fidd of crirninology structured by se•·er:tl \v.1$ normal sciences coniing fron1 d1fîcrent traditions (psychucry. anthropology, crinlinal la\v, hygie111C>. judic1al (t.lll<ti", and so forth). When it proved d1flicult co lind the origin~ ofc runinology in the last part of the nineteen1h century. <eho'3N changed direction and hcg:in to look at a gene:tlogy ofidcas. \V1thout 111ini111i1ing the in1portancc oft he la<t quarter of thl" nineceench cenrury. Chrisnan l)ebuySI proposed a ag<·nda. naine!); Ile\\' studying the "periphcr:il <eience<" chic were investig;ating the "dclinqucncy phenoniena. . long bef ore th<' tcnn crirni11clogy beca111c <">tablishcd. 14 According 10 Laurent Muccluclh. French crin11nology bci;an with eighteenth-cencury phy<icians. /\ continuity was c:st:1blished chat oper:ucd on the levd ofidea!, witncssini; variou< pcriod1 ofc orucnsu>. open debate, and conBict for the next hundrcd y<•ars. /\t chi< lcvel of:malysis. 1t is possible to defend the idca 1ha1 "the 111entalitics and pcnal practices, rhe big clichés 15 of criminality" \Vere cstablishcd at the· end of the Middle /\gcs. But the physician< nevcr had a monopoly on scicntific di~courscs about crime and the crin1inal. Tin" D~huy<t found rhc ddinq11cncy problcm addrcssL-d in Lhc "difTu1cd knowkdKc" (s1111<Jirs d[JT11s) and the "problc1natic 16 po<itions" (sit11atio11s prolilr111ri) of the c1gh1ccn1h ccnniry. /\ld1ough such studie< pa<e the problcn1o f continuity. they do allo\\' a collcetivc reconstruc tion of what Alvaro Pires calls "the field of criniinology."17 1'1y problen1 here is not to csublish "'hcn .u1d .iccording to 'vhich epistcrnologtcal or institutional criteria crirn111ol0b~ aros<· as ,1 science, but \\'hcn and witliin \Vhat conrext the '\rin1inological qt1L'Stio11" bec:une, according 10 Claude Lé,·i-Straus, a subjcct that ·wa< "good to think about" for both the "narural S<iences" and the "hu1nan <c1c11Cc(." '-""•"W" 12 "-1.amot' Kalwz)..M.t, ..A u' dt f.i ('f1m1nnlog:N"~ 1·.anchmpolowf' UÙIUJlC'tk. .. I~ 2. no 5 (19'18): 17-.lO. Il Thom.. S Kuhn. 7W .........,,.. _, ·'""""' !Ut.-l·r-• .14 td (Clur~ 1'1'>6: t • Chrnwn Dd>a)" '"'"' 1noodu•t - lui<~•< J< b trm'IUIOlogic-' h probimut"I""' dr cli!"".- Oln...-r tt IMiv ... IW\ .. (11"911) \>t1 ..., , is ,,,,...iv ~ttitthw-lft c-d llua."fllltMJ~ ,,.,,, ,.~ 4fll 16 lkbu}"K <1.1'., llbMw"' d'l'-'tn. 1 11).I 1111 1; Pitti., .. U ('t1n'tl~ d°h.WT f1: J.1llJ<'1 nt l ln. 41 T/1r Or\qi11s of Fre11d1 Cri111i11ol<Jg)' 29 THL UNO 01 Tiii' AN<:tr N REGIME AND THll C" IMINAL QUt~flUN lf hunun socicry '"P'"'''" clillèrent ac~ by \'ary111g 111cJ11>, tt ca11no1 ignore the i"uc of crtnl<'. The "cri1ni112I quc:<tion"' \\OJ< drcply 111od1fied 111 the \\'c;t "·hen 1noral dicoloi.,-y lo.1 il> 111011op<.>ly. A' noted hy Dehuyst. 11 ""' 111 the cigh1.-en1h crr1t1tf)' that ddi11qucnt bd1:iv1or aud 111oral fa11in): bcran•<· distinb'lll<hcd." NOi 1ha1 1110.-::11 culpab1l1ty di5.1ppeared .111 JI once (ic nc,·cr co111pktdy di~ppcan:d). but it \VJ> no longer the do111i11,111t cxplanatory Ji<coursc on crimi1l.llicy. Howc\'cr. this break in the rcprc>cn1a11011 of th<' cri111i11al/~11u1<'r ''a' ncither cpis1cn1oloi;ic,1I nur i11stitu1io11al hut poliacal bccauM! the foundation of thcolugical r<'prcscnc;nion wa' ,h,1ke11 in .111 fields. The <a111c pht.'110111cnon '""' cvidcnt rci;arding the pov.:rty question, \Vhich "~" d o;cly rclat<·d co the one of cri111i1wlity: "Convi11ccd of ln1111a11 pcr foctibilil)'. the Enli~htt·n1nènt \\'ritcrs had th1· powl'rful de,ire 10 i111pruvc the qoality oflifc and fdt certain that the condition oftht• poor \\'3< in no war ticd tu 1hc1r torrupuon or to h11n1a11 fr"Jilty TI1cy no longer acceptcd the tlu.-ur) that J'O'""rty "~' J <in dnd prefcrred to con 1d<·r it an d fccr of ...... ·ccono11uc <1 1 .. n~c:". GiovJnild l'rocaci no1c<l tlut thc second b..Jf of d"· .:ii;h1cc111h ccntury "''"'''"'d .1 1110"' fron1 a conccpaon of "povcrty pcrccl\-.:d 3> an in<ll\•idwl dc"my to une uf pu\crty u11dcrstood as a <oci.il phenon1e11on," and c111ph.1- <izcd the subvcr>ivc <li1ncns1011 of thc:sc ncw theories th,n con,idcrcd povcrty 2 10 hc .1 "t·u11«·quc11cc of dcsporisin." " This notion rcjt·ctcd th<· >yste111 of ""i>L:11irc ba,ed 011 ch:1ri1y, :ind physiucr:1t< surh as Anne R obc:rt Jacques Turgot wc11t <n for a< 10 thcorizc thar po\'crty was a by-p1udun of rhariry. Til<'''' critÎ<'' '011gh1 co cli<crcdit the church '< a<ccndancy and to sho\v chat pon·rry ''""' a <ocial probl.·111 that the >latc had to takc c.1r<· of. l'.1r.illd to the lu rdening of the rcprc•sion 1Cb'2rdini; whac Foucault dc'Cnl"7d .t> tll<' ''ill<'!;.llitit"> of propcrty" (illég11/ismt$ dt bir11.s). thi< pcnod '"''Y "nnc«cd a .:hanj:I: 111 the rcprcscntation of ,·ri1ninJli1~ tlut \\'2< si111i 11 lar to the change< in che ,·onccption of povcrty. \Vl11lc the philosophic:il •nd rohuc:il ag11Jt10n undc:nnincd the 1non•rchy by opcnly criticizini:: its i1ht1tut1on~ Jtld prtncipks. and d.-chrbti•nÎZJtion \Va' ,luwl} prv;;r.--,i11g. Frc:nd1 <oCl<'ty vocift'rOlhly debar"d the crin1i113J quc1unn. rhc: \Vri1111S$ of l'vlontesqu1~u. and c:vc:n n1or<· tho<c: of Voltaire, llou«cau, Ucccaria. Cundo1rct. a11d ncher,, dcvd oped a linc of tl1inking that 01w could call "judiri•I ilk alis111." Judicial id.-alis1n hcld that crirninality "'"' c:111sc:d 1101 so l' 1> -.i..,1\"-t, C"J • 111,1,wt Jt 1.1 "''"",..,"~"' Jt..:tJ<.JIA'. i 1 l'J A f-0~. /...., R.ll-.~1ttiM,ÎNlf(.J4J( '1 la r.-•r"l'fJ (PJm. I\)~). J.6 211 <• Pn .._" \ 1. (oî•\ '""' LI ,,.,,).( 14' 'P""'t0tt 4Yi.r!.o m l:U"t..T ( I ';6~ I $-1,tJJ ~V. ..n-,.. l'l'JJJ. 1' 4 . .!l ~ ... .autt. S-1nlatlf'AIL''• ?>-1•)6.. 30 1\!forc Rt1111evill1 1nuch hy curruplcd cu<to1n~ or the original <i11 but by b,1dl) oriç1niz.:d <ccular û1stitl1tio11'). lt i~ o;ig11ifica11t tl1at at that ti1ne thcrc \Vd' 110 discoL1rse co11- neccing th.: urban working class and the "dangerous cla;ses, ·• cvcn though in Paris at lew, "four-fifih~ of the .,,;oient acrs co1mnitted bcr\\'ecn 1765 and 1785 "cre ~ltributable to j ourneyn1e11 or \VOrkers born ou1,idc: the capital." That is to say. if Pans breathed "order and cranqutl11y" thost> n1en \vho \Yere soon to be labeled "<.ivages" \vere alrcady in the ciry. 22 To 111en1bers of the working cl~-.;e>, pov<'rry and cri111inality intcnningletl in rc:ality, but in a rcn1arkabk oodopolilical configuration a laq,"C part of lhc elitc considen:d that the danger did not co me fro111 the botto111 but fro1n the top. The diai;nosis of a natural corruption of the iodividual was transferred into the in>titution~. This rc111arkable mon1cnt \V-JS studicd in dctail by Hans Jürgen Lli~ebrink. in hi, ;inalyses of the liter:uure nf the "fan1ou' trials." for \Vhich Loub-Do111iniquc Cartouche (1693- 172 1) .111d Louis !Vlandrin (1724-55) \Vere the kcy figure'\, and his analy-'li'I oft he 111c1nor:111d1 pre~cnted ac the pm,~ncial acade111ies.2-' Of course, litcrJture .1hou1 crin1e already existed in the <cvcntccn1h cenrury in the Tragical S1<1ries ~(Our 1imN (Les hü roires tragique<; de narre ren1ps) by François d" llo~<el ( 1614), TI1e ûueral of His1ory TI1i1•1'f'> (L'hi<toire g~nérale des larron~) by Fr:u1çois de Calvès (1623). TI1e S1wtaclrs of Horror (Les ~pectacle1 d'horreur) hy j ean-Pierre Can1t1' (1630), and in halhds and tales, ah\'ay-; u1eful for biographies of fa111ous crirninal<. T\vo in~portant changes took plac<·: the an1plificarion of those discursive circlcs th3t werc inicially confincd to a popular public tO ail lcvel< of socicty, ~11d tlheir new pole1uical u~.1gc. ln the 1ccond half of the eighreenth ccntury, the biographies ofbrii,>ands publi;hcd in the fa1nous bibliotliè<JllC bleue often turned againsc the obsoletc n1onarchy by criticii ing its judicial powt>r and by characcerizing it abu;iw: and unfair. The ;i; narratives of trials or famous affairs rt>vealcd the arbitrary nature of the "let rres de cachet"; of procedural s..-crecy: and of the u~c of torture during interrogation. The conrrovcrs1cs in popular and literai)' rcprc~ntarion~ of criminality can be found 111 the learned literacure a~ \Vell. Conccrns about the cri111inal question and judicial rcform arc artesred by the numcmu< cxaminacions of che<c problcn1< 111 rhc~c< by the learned societic< ~11d the acaden1ies. ln 1777, for cxMnple, the 'Eco1101nic Society of Dcrn <olicitcd proposals for 22 Arlc.•ttc .,,.,&"C :.aotl Aue.Ir~ Zy>bc·rg. "les thé:ltt\'.') di: la v1olcu(C A 1•.iri~ au XVlllc i.Ïèc:lc," ll1tnalt's r:.s.r.. . "'" ;; u112. (1~79): 23 Han\-JUrt,'\'n l 11-.cllrtnk, •· 1..c. . n-rr~~nt:1c10t1~ ~oc1dles de L:i cn1ni11al1tc!: rn Fr.in..:c au XV'II l~ .1Îèclc," Ph O. dus . &."Oie Jt• Miu•~ E:r1tcle~ ~n Xietitt$ Soci.-Jn. 1'.ltas. L9 83 of Tlie Or~~ins Freuch Cri111i11olo,cy 31 "a co1npletc ,111d dctaikd project ofc riminal legi,lation" thac \\'01ild take into account ( 1) the: principle of proportionaliiy. (2) the 11.1cun; of the evidencc= co be rc:tain1·<l . .ind (3) hO\v to reconcile an efficient jud1cial invt-srigarion with "the b'Teatc~t P~'ible guar.111tees for liberty and hununity." Voltaire and jeJn-P•ul Marat 'cnt thdr own contribution,. ln 1780 the Acade111y of Chalon>-'ur-:v1arne called for a reflecaon ''about the 1ueans co decr.-ase tbe >evcrity of the pt•nal l:nv' in Fr.ince. \Vithout going aµain<t the public ,everity." Jo<eph Elzé.JT Doniinique de Dcrnardi ,111d J•cquc,-Piern; Uris.<01 de= Warville :il<u "1h111icrcd cheir rrports. 24 The \Vind> ofphil.111thropy cuuld be fdt in nio<l of the1e inemoranda. A rc,~uction in punish111cnt was :1dvocated 1nost oftcn, a11d the autburs con sidcred clic h.11'hne1< of the law,; a violation of citizen>' riµht:.~ thac p.irtially e>-"J'hined the incrc~<c of crin1i11aliry. Beware thu'c whn f.lilcd to co111ply with the recomn1cndarions of the acadenücs. At the Chalon,-sur-Marne cxanünation of l 78rl. for exan1ple. an author di1cingu11hcd hin11clfby assert ing chat excessive lcnit•ncc by judge< \\'as ac the ori!Pn of rri111i11al behavior. The Ac:ide111y'< judg1nent \Ya< harsh: " He begins by <ay111µ that the pcnal la'vs are not '"''""' in France. ... lt \vould be no u<e ro i-;o fi1rthcr in the analysis of thJS 111cnio. \vhich is very badly 'vrittl'.ll and doc' 1101 fülfill, in any way, the vic,v< of the Academy." An an•ly'i' uf fiîty 111en1oranda \vritten betwccn 1774 and 1788 by Lüst:brink shuwi:d chat although half of the n1c1norand:1 ,c;ncd th.1t the pri mary or igin of a 11 <'ri Ille< lay in hu1nan nature icsclf , in the "vices" and "dis astrous pa,sio11s" of dit· hu111an bc:ing, a 111ultitude ol"<ocial focror'> \vas cited tu cxplain the cvolution of and the increase in cri111i11aliry. H111na11 nature \\'aS citecl a; the c.1u'e of ofl<:nses l\ve11ry-1even ti1ncs, but "social abust:s" 25 werc c1tcd tlur1y-ci1;ht ti111t'S, and "juridical abusô," forty-thrt'c ti1ne1. Of cour<<'. the C hn•tian influence re1uaincd scron~. <111d \vhcn the "huma.n nan1re" of the olfenders was cit<'d a< J cau1e. 11 \\JI \tlll referred to as ,;n dnd fault, and not a.< illnt><:.I in the strict <cn<e. Th" rare presence of 1ned1c.1I tenns shonld not be considcrcd herc: as evidcncc ofa crin1inological d1<cour<t' bccau,c their usc.· w;is gener.ùly 1netaphorical. Thi< pachological regi>ter '"'" 1no<tly a polc1nical broadside agai1bt the juditial in1citurio11. ln chi1 \vay it ,vas. for l1ri«ot de Warville. the exce<1ivc frçqucncy of pun- 1sh111n1t chat v.•as .. ,, >)'lllptom of iUncss" for a govcrn111cnr becanse "the m•n is llOt borll an ene111y ofsocicty" He did nue hcsirnc1· to dcnounçe the 2-4 t:~thcr1n.: nurr.u, t..r tl'lllJlf J,•s pl11JaJllftroi1e.c_· L1 rltifau1'1rcptt '"''ültlllh'. Jrt~ l.Jj1t!1h1·~ J (.1 ""'t1.rrr/11t' clt )udltt, 2 vub.(l11ra. 19')3). 1 1:.--1x 25 lii-.c:b1u1l. "Ler. rcpn:~uc.1c1on:.~ !o..,uks.'' 213. 32 /\!fart Rell11eville cnminality of the uppcr c1:1:;sc;: "Anacks ai,'llinst the securiry a11d the liberty of the citiz. .. n> •r<" one of the greatcst crin1es, and 111 tht\ catcgory ntust be included not onl)' a<-a"ination and theft co1n1ni1ted hy indiv1duals of the people but aho tho\C co1nn1ittcd b)• n1cn in high pbcc< l lld the 1nagistrates. \\'hose utfluencc am on a largcr field and \\;th n1ore force. d<."\ll'O);ng the idea s ofju5tice and ta<k in the 1nind of the subjecu, lnd rcplacing thc1n '"ith th. .. right of the ~trongcst. a rigln that is eqU311> cbngcrou< for tho<c \\'ho 216 apply it and tho-.e \Vho arc <UbJeCt to it.'' Most of thcsc \VOrk' undcnnined the bas<'> of the poluical lcgitimacy of th.: state. 1n hh Plan of Cri minai Le.~islatio11, which wa, <ub<cqucntly dcstroyed, Marat wondcred whcther there w." "no i.:ovcn1111c111 in the \vorld that c.111 be co111idcrcd legiti111ate" and whether oht;ring th« laws \V3S nota ntallt"r of calcul:tcion rathcr than dury.27 lt w.1< rccalled rccc11tly that Uccc.1rta'• fa111011< Dri drliui e dcl/f /X"•e was 1101 only a trc:atisc on riglns but also a pan1phlct on equ;ilit)·· Hence. the penal qu""1011 a prctcxt to \\'J\ trcat "the rcîorrn of <,()('tCI)' and s12tc in a 1non! gcncr.ll nunner. ..2 '< More o,-cr. th<'.re 1~ a pa>>Jgc of .1 \\OÔ: \\'here Deccar~1 idcnnfied hiniself ~ a bripnd. ln thesc ~urpnsini; lin<-<. scldom cited, the dutlror ,fn-otcd hunself to \\'OOt criunnologi1ts tod.1y \\-Ould c..U co1t-bcndit JnJ.!ys1s. but the rea )()ning of hi< irnJRÎnary offendcr rniles aparc fron1 the one that certain \\';IS cri11w1ologi,l< attrrbutc co Ucccaria. Let us recall this pa~'agc: "What are [as the offendcr wo11ld <;.1y] thosc la\VS that we mu~t rc<pect and thac rnake so 1nany differcnccs bccwt•c11 the rich and n1e? He rcfu~ccl me a penny wbcn 1 askC'd him aucl, a~ an cxc use. cxhort< rne 10 \\•ork, which hc rou Id not do hirnself. And tho,c Jaw,, who rnadc thcrn? Rich and powcrful p«oplc who never deig11ed 10 v1>1t our cbrk conagcs of po,-.:n y. "2'> Uecausc thr poor bcnetitcd linlc b)' respcctini; the b\\') and the co~ts for doing so are high. the rcforrner connnucd. it " '' 11er~"'1ry to bn·ak "those tÎ1.'1 tltat arc diS3,tl'O<h for n1ost n1en and that bcndit onlv a ,null nurnbcr of • idle tyrants." 10 ltt.1ck "the UIJUStlCe at its root" and rctun1 to "the natur.tl state ofindcpendcncc." 13cccaria cndcd \Vtth an i1nai;inary n1onolôj!uc of the 2r, J:.icquo P;crrt llri'~ tk WM\l,tk.I 'Û•''' I IHC)Yr11 d'.i.,1.Ju.rr f4 r'\fllt'Ut llN /.;ii, r/'NJkt tTI I h3rwr, UrtJ nuire à s11rrtl ,.1Mq11r, ,,_, l)i"'~uu <OHto111th l'A<d46nk dt Ch.ffflf1s"'ur-1\Jia,ur f'H l 1ff() ((~hilonll. . ~ur. . M;irnc. 1781). 2H. .,,.,,('('i.., 27 PJttre l.l~ounln, J._1·r~r1c ;u1d P. 1..<1l08, Au '"""' '"' l'vffitc' (1ow 1111.1""'' 1"'1/1,qur tl11 «Nk cr. .... 1""•'1 19•">>. 29 \o. 28 MllilO ~'w<oh, "llt(('Jria ()\1 J'J\'~Jl('ll'l<'Jlt de roidit': l,.(' phtlruophC'. Je.,. JUI ,.,('~ ('I l'ét'rlC'l'(l:('l'lo('~ dr ll«Mri•" ,. "'"""' '"'*"".,.,"' ù qun.UOJl 1>ê-11ik:' Ill ~1t(')tr11"'rm, td.. JMriliq.11' ,,., (C~tK'\'J. 1997). 1711. 29 C<=< IJ«C»U, /)n l<ill <t ..,., rri<N (17(,.4, "Jlnnl. P.orÎ>. t?'Jl). llll