Fracture and Fatigue of Adhesively-Bonded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Structural Joints THÈSE NO 4662 (2010) PRÉSENTÉE LE 20 AVRIL 2010 À LA FACULTÉ ENVIRONNEMENT NATUREL, ARCHITECTURAL ET CONSTRUIT LABORATOIRE DE CONSTRUCTION EN COMPOSITES PROGRAMME DOCTORAL EN STRUCTURES ÉCOLE POLYTECHNIQUE FÉDÉRALE DE LAUSANNE POUR L'OBTENTION DU GRADE DE DOCTEUR ÈS SCIENCES PAR Ye ZHANG acceptée sur proposition du jury: Prof. I. Smith, président du jury Prof. T. Keller, Dr A. Vasilopoulos, directeurs de thèse Dr A. Brunner, rapporteur Prof. E. Brühwiler, rapporteur Prof. G. Sedlacek, rapporteur Suisse 2010 CONTENTS PREFACE V ABSTRACT VII RÉSUMÉ IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XI 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.2 Objectives 6 1.3 Methodology 7 1.4 Composition of the work 9 2 PUBLICATIONS 15 2.1 Mechanical and fracture behavior of fracture joints under quasi‐static loading 15 2.2 Mechanical and fracture behavior of structural joints under quasi‐static loading 48 2.3 Modeling of mechanical and fracture behavior under quasi‐static loading 74 2.4 Environmental effects under quasi‐static loading 103 2.5 Mechanical behavior under fatigue loading 130 2.6 Fracture behavior under fatigue loading 149 2.7 Environmental effects under fatigue loading 174 3 SUMMARY 195 3.1 Summary of results 195 3.2 Original contributions 197 3.3 Further investigations and future prospects 201 CURRICULUM VITAE 205 APPENDICES ON CD‐ROM ii CONTENTS OF APPENDICES A Material Properties of GFRP Laminates 2 A.1 Burn‐off experiments and fiber volume fraction 2 A.2 Determination of tensile strength and modulus of elasticity 5 A.2.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 5 A.2.2 Summary of experimental results 5 A.2.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 7 A.3 Determination of flexural modulus 10 A.3.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 10 A.3.2 Summary of experimental results 11 B Material Properties of Epoxy Adhesive (Sikadur 330) 12 B.1 Effects of loading rate on tensile modulus of elasticity 12 B.1.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 12 B.1.2 Summary of experimental results 15 B.1.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 18 B.2 Determination of shear properties 27 B.2.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 27 B.2.2 Summary of experimental results 27 B.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) 30 C Experimental Investigations of Fracture Joints under Quasi‐Static Loading 31 C.1 Mode I fracture experiments 31 C.1.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 31 C.1.2 Summary of experimental results 31 C.1.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 35 C.2 Mode II fracture experiments 41 C.2.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 41 C.2.2 Summary of experimental results 41 C.2.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 45 C.3 Preliminary Mode II fracture experiments 54 iii C.3.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 54 C.3.2 Summary of experimental results 55 C.3.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 61 D Experimental Investigations of Structural Joints under Quasi‐Static Loading 67 D.1 Double‐lap joint experiments 67 D.1.1 At 23°C 67 D.1.2 At ‐35°C 94 D.1.3 At temperatures of 40°C and higher 107 D.1.4 At 40°C + 90%RH 125 D.1.5 Preconditioned double‐lap joint experiments 137 D.2 Stepped‐lap joint experiments 140 D.2.1 At 23°C 140 D.2.2 At ‐35°C 154 D.2.3 At 40°C 161 E Experimental Investigations of Structural Joints under Fatigue Loading 168 E.1 Double‐lap joint experiments 168 E.1.1 At 23°C + 50%RH 168 E.1.2 At ‐35°C 200 E.1.3 At 40°C + 50%RH 235 E.1.4 At 40°C + 90%RH 270 E.2 Stepped‐lap joint experiments at 23°C + 50%RH 305 E.2.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 305 E.2.2 Summary of experimental results 305 E.2.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 308 E.3 Preliminary fatigue experiments at a frequency of 2 Hz 337 E.3.1 Experimental program and instrumentation 337 E.3.2 Summary of experimental results 338 E.3.3 Experimental results for individual specimens 342 iv F Numerical Model Source Code (for ANSYS 10.0) 358 F.1 Application of Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT) 358 F.1.1 Source code for Double‐Cantilever‐Beam model (3D) 358 F.1.2 Source code for End‐Loaded‐Split (3D) 363 F.1.3 Source code for double‐lap joint model (2D) 373 F.1.4 Source code for stepped‐lap joint model (2D) 385 F.2 Temperature‐dependent joint stiffness 407 v PREFACE Fiber‐reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are increasingly used in engineering structures thanks to their advantageous material properties such as high specific strength, high insensitivity to frost and de‐icing salts, and short installation times with minimum traffic interference in the case of bridge construction. Advances in pultrusion technology allow the production of large‐scale structural profiles at acceptable costs for civil infrastructure applications. However, structural FRP components are still difficult to connect due to the brittle fibrous and anisotropic nature of the materials. The current practice of bolting leads, in most cases, to an oversizing of components. Adhesive bonding is much more appropriate for FRP composites since adhesive joints exhibit higher joint efficiencies and are much stiffer compared to bolted joints. This is significant with regard to the stiffness‐governed design of structures using glass fibers (GFRP). Since GFRP bridges are very light in weight compared to their live loads, the repetitive loading to which they are subjected raises the question of the fatigue behavior of such structures and, in particular, their connections. Research concerning the fatigue behavior of adhesive connections has been done mainly in areas other than civil engineering (aircraft and vehicle construction). In these areas, mainly traditional laminated FRP materials are used and the adhesive layers are very thin, well below 1 mm. The internal material structure of pultruded FRP components is, however, very different and much larger tolerances in the connections of civil engineering structures require much thicker adhesive layers. It is thus almost impossible to directly compare and transfer research results between these very different areas and modes of application. In the field of adhesive connections of pultruded profiles, very little research has been done to date. The aim of this thesis is therefore to contribute to a better understanding of the fracture and fatigue behavior of adhesively‐bonded structural joints composed of pultruded GFRP adherends. I would like to acknowledge the support provided for this research project by the Swiss National Science Foundation, Fiberline Composites A/S, Denmark (pultruded laminate supplier), and Sika AG, Zurich (adhesive supplier). Prof. Dr. Thomas Keller CCLab Director/Thesis Director vi vii ABSTRACT Being good structural replacement for other conventional material, the pultruded glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) profiles are being increasingly used in civil engineering structures. The connection between components is considered the most suspect area for failure initiation. The adhesive bonding is preferred for FRP composite structures, rather than the mechanical fastening, due to the brittle failure nature of composite materials. During past decades, many efforts have been made by researchers to better understand the mechanism of adhesive bonding, to analyze the stress distributions and to improve the strength of composite structural joints. However there is still no commonly accepted design code/standard existing for adhesively‐bonded joints in civil engineering infrastructures since several important knowledge gaps are to be filled. Besides the joint strength at failure, the characterization and modeling of the progressive failure process, in particular involving the so‐called crack initiation and propagation phases, is also an important concern. By employing the strain energy release rate (SERR) as the fracture parameter, the linear‐elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) approach is considered an efficient method to model the fracture behavior of structural joints. However, due to the uncontrollable crack initiation and the complex geometric configurations, the crack measurement techniques and the calculation method for the SERR are to be validated. In fracture mechanics, the fracture of a material or component can be described by a single mode or the combinations of the following three basic modes: opening mode (Mode I), shearing mode (Mode II), and tearing mode (Mode III). During the fracture of a structural joint, crack initiation and propagation are driven by combined through‐thickness tensile (peeling), and shear stresses, thus resulting in a mixed mode fracture. In order to use the fracture results of structural joints to form the mixed fracture criterion for a specific composite material, a feasible analytical or numerical method are to be developed to determine the Mode I and II components of the SERR during fracture. Although many efforts have been made to better understand the short‐term behavior of structural joint under quasi‐static loading, the long‐term performance under fatigue loading and different environmental conditions is a more demanding task when adhesively‐bonded joints are applied in a real structure. Most of structural failures occur due to mechanisms that are driven by fatigue loading and for composite structures, the fatigue produced by the repeated application of live load is more critical due to its lighter self‐weight, in other words the lower dead load. Besides the fatigue loading, a structure in practice may also experience the combined environmental effects of two basic factors: temperature and humidity. These environmental conditions may directly affect properties of structural viii joints, including the failure mechanism, the stiffness and strength, the crack initiation and propagation and etc.. Thus, the missing knowledge and confidences in the long‐term behavior under cyclic loading and the durability under different environmental conditions are the main obstacles to the further development of FRP composites in civil engineering infrastructures. In this research, the mechanical and fracture behavior of adhesively‐bonded double‐lap and stepped‐lap joints (DLJs and SLJs) composed of pultruded GFRP laminates and an epoxy adhesive were experimentally and numerically investigated under both quasi‐static and fatigue loadings. The crack measurement techniques and the calculation methods for the SERR were validated for DLJs and SLJs. The LEFM approach was successfully applied to characterize and model the progressive failure process of structural joints. The Mode I and II components of the SERR of DLJs and SLJs were determined using the Virtual Crack Closure Technique in finite element analysis. Combining with the results of pure Mode I and II experiments, a mixed mode fracture criterion for pultruded GFRP composite was formed. Under fatigue loading, the fatigue behavior of structural joints was successfully modeled by using the stiffness‐based and fracture mechanics approaches, besides the F‐N curves. Based on the stiffness degradation, a linear and a sigmoid non‐linear model were established and the fatigue live corresponding to the failure and allowable stiffness degradation can be predicted. Concerning fracture mechanics approach, the Fatigue Crack Growth (FCG) curves were formed for DLJs and SLJs and the corresponding fracture parameters were obtained. Similarly to stiffness‐based approach, fatigue lives corresponding to the failure and allowable crack length can be predicted. The environmental effects on both short‐ and long‐term performances of structural joints were experimentally evaluated and numerically modeled based on experimental results. The temperature‐dependent joint stiffness can be predicted using the finite element analysis based on the thermomechanical properties of constituent materials. A relationship between the equivalent quasi‐static joint strength under different environmental conditions and the cyclic stresses and the fatigue life was established. Keywords Adhesively‐bonded joints; pultruded GFRP; fracture; fatigue; crack initiation; crack propagation; stiffness degradation; environmental effects
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