Foster Parenting in L.M. Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables and J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Novels - Representations of Parenting in Two Classic Children’s Novel th Series from the Early and the Late 20 Century Anne-Maria Lakka University of Tampere English Philology School of Modern Languages and Translation Studies Pro Gradu Thesis August 2009 Tampereen yliopisto Englantilainen filologia Kieli- ja käännöstieteiden laitos LAKKA, ANNE-MARIA: Foster Parenting in L.M. Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables and J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Novels – Representations of Parenting in Two Classic Children’s Novel Series from the Early and the Late 20th Century Pro gradu -tutkielma, 112 sivua Kesä 2009 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena oli selvittää miten kasvattivanhemmuutta kuvaillaan L.M. Montgomeryn Anne of Green Gables ja Anne of Avonlea -kirjoissa sekä J.K. Rowlingin Harry Potter -sarjassa. Erityisenä huomion kohteena oli löytää yhteneväisyyksiä ja eroavaisuuksia kirjoissa esitetyistä lasten kasvatuksen kuvauksista sekä pohtia mahdollisia syitä näihin kuvauksiin. Kummankin sarjan päähenkilö on orpo ja elänyt kasvattivanhempiensa hoivissa yksitoistavuotiaaksi asti. Vaikka molemmat ovat menettäneet vanhempansa vauvaiässä, sekä Anne että Harry olivat ilmeisesti kiintyneet vanhempiinsa Bowlbyn psykologisen kiintymyssuhde-teorian mukaan turvallisesti, koska voivat myöhemmin muodostaa turvallisia kiintymyssuhteita toisiin ihmisiin; uusiin kasvatti- tai adoptiovanhempiin sekä opettajiin, muihin aikuisiin ja ikätovereihinsa. Harryn kiintymyssuhde Dursleyhin näyttää kuitenkin olevan välttelevä. Keski-ikäiset sisarukset, Cuthbertit, päättävät pitää Annen, vaikka halusivat alun perin adoptoida pojan. Matthew selvästi pitää Annesta ensi näkemältä ja haluaa tarjota tälle ”omalle tytölleen” kodin, mutta Marillan äidinvaistot heräävät vasta paljon myöhemmin. Anne saa kuitenkin jäädä Avonleaan, jossa sekä hänen fyysisestä että psyykkisestä hyvinvoinnistaan huolehditaan hyvin. Orvolla Harrylla on useita äiti- ja isä-hahmoja. Weasleyt pitävät Harrya omana poikanaan ja tarjoavat tälle turvallisen perheilmapiirin sekä huolehtivat hänen perustarpeistaankin paremmin kuin Dursleyt. Velhomaailmassa ja Tylypahkan koulussa Harry saa vihdoin osakseen kunnollista huolenpitoa ja hänellä on ilmeisen läheinen ja lämmin suhde esimerkiksi Hagridiin, Dumbledoreen, Weasleyhin sekä erityisesti kummisetäänsä Siriukseen, toisin kuin verisukulaisiinsa Dursleyhin. Dursleyt pystyvät ilmeisesti epäämään Harrylta kaiken, koska eivät välitä tästä; oman poikansa, Dudleyn, he taas ovat pilanneet toteuttamalla tämän joka toiveen. Harry oppii nöyryyttä ja kieltäymystä, kun taas ylensyövä Dudley oppii vain itserakkautta ja nautinnonhimoa. Toisaalta Marilla pystyy kasvattamaan Annea hyvin, tosin Matthew’n avulla, vaikka välittääkin tästä. Vaikka Annen adoptiovanhemmat ovat ventovieraita, he ovat kuitenkin parempia vanhempia tälle kuin Harryn omat sukulaiset Harrylle. Annen vanhemmista toinen on ankara ja toinen pehmeä—Marillan ja Matthew’n erilaiset kasvatusmenetelmät tasapainottavat toisiaan. Myös Harryn velhovanhemmat edustavat pehmeitä arvoja, kun taas jästivanhempien kasvatusmetodit ovat ankarat. Sekä Montgomery että Rowling pitävät kurinpitoa tarpeellisena, mutta eivät näytä hyväksyvän fyysistä tai psyykkistä kuritusta. Molemmat vaativat pehmeämpiä lapsenkasvatusmetodeja; sadassa vuodessa juuri mikään ei siis näytä muuttuneen. Kirjasarjoissa pyritään löytämään tasapaino puritaanisen ja romanttisen näkökulman, ankaran ja pehmeän kasvatustavan, välillä. Näin ollen sekä hemmottelu että kieltäminen ovat tarpeen, jotta lapsi kehittyy ”normaalisti”. Toisaalta sekä Anne että Harry haluavat kumpikin olla hyviä eli ihmiset voivat myös itse valita, millaisiksi he tulevat. Sekä kasvatuksella että luonteella on siis osuutensa, mutta voi olla, että luonne kuitenkin ratkaisee. Avainsanat: parenting, children’s literature, adoptive parenting, foster parenting, attachment theory. Table of Contents 1 Introduction………………………………………………………...……. 1 2 Orphans and Adoption – Real and Literary Orphans…………...…… 4 2.1 Anne and Harry as Literary Orphans…………………………….…… 4 2.1.1 ‘Urchins, Orphans, Monsters, and Victims’ – Orphans in the Victorian Era……………………………………………………..……... 5 2.1.2 Orphans and Adoption in the Modern Era…………………...……….. 8 2.2 Adoption–History…………………………………………………..….... 9 3 Attachment Theory and Maternal Deprivation – Anne and Harry Psychologically…………..………………………………………...…...... 18 3.1 Theoretical Frame…………...………………………….………..……... 18 3.2 Attachment Theory…………….……………………….…………..…... 19 3.3 Maternal Deprivation…………….………………………..……..……... 28 3.4 Childhood Bereavement and Mourning…………….…………..……... 29 4 Families and Parenting…………….………………………...………...... 32 4.1 The Family…………….……………………………………….…….…... 32 4.2 Men and Women as Parents…………….…………………….………... 37 4.2.1 Mothering…………….………………………………………….............. 37 4.2.2 Fathering…………….…………………………………..………............. 39 4.3 Parent Figures in Anne and Harry……….………………..….………... 42 4.3.1 Anne’s Parent Figures………….……….…………….……….………... 44 4.3.2 Harry’s Parent Figures………….……….…………………….………... 48 4.4 Animal Needs………….……….…………………..…………...………... 55 4.4.1 Food and Gluttony in Children’s Literature……….………..………... 55 4.4.1.1 Food and Nutrition in Anne of Green Gables……………..……..…….. 59 4.4.1.2 Food and Nutrition in Harry Potter………….………………………….. 60 4.4.2 Shelter and Clothing………….……………………...………………….. 64 4.4.2.1 Shelter and Clothing in Anne of Green Gables……...….………………. 64 4.4.2.2 Shelter and Clothing in Harry Potter……...….…………………………. 66 4.4.3 Protection and Safety……...….…………………………………………. 67 4.4.3.1 Protection and Safety in Anne of Green Gables……...….…………...…. 67 4.4.3.2 Protection and Safety in Harry Potter……...….……………………...…. 67 4.5 Psychological Well-Being and Emotional Support: Love, Attachment, and Approval……...….……………………………………………......…. 69 4.5.1 Psychological Well-Being and Emotional Support in Anne of Green Gables……...….……………………………………………...................... 70 4.5.2 Psychological Well-Being and Emotional Support in Harry Potter...…. 74 4.6 Moral Education and Role Models……………………………….....….. 80 4.6.1 Moral Education in Anne of Green Gables……………………….....…. 81 4.6.2 Moral Education in Harry Potter………………………………….....…. 82 4.7 Discipline: Rules and Consequences……………………….……......…. 85 4.7.1 Rules and Consequences in Anne of Green Gables.…….……….......…. 87 4.7.2 Rules and Consequences in Harry Potter……………………...…......…. 92 5 Summary and Conclusions……...….…..…………………..................…. 100 Bibliography.……...….……………………………………………..................…. 106 1 1 Introduction This thesis discusses foster parenting of the orphan protagonists in two different types of classic children’s novels, realist and fantasy; L. M. Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables1 published in 1908 and J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone2 published in 1997. There is actually a hundred year gap between the times the novels depict; the beginning of AGG is set in about 1890 as McMaster (2007, 408) has established and the beginning of Philosopher’s Stone is set in 1991. The aim of this study is to examine how foster parenting is represented in the novels and, in particular, to observe similarities and differences in the representation of parenting in a children’s novel from the early 20th century to a novel from the late 20th century and to propose possible reasons for these representations. I will also study Anne of Avonlea3 and all the sequels in the Harry Potter series to obtain a fuller picture of the way the orphans are parented. Both are adults at the end of the last novels studied in each series (AA and Deathly Hallows). Parenting in this thesis will be examined via attachment theory as well as parenting models presented in adoption literature. The subject of foster parenting in the Anne and Harry novels has not been studied very extensively before. However, the “awakening” of Marilla and Matthew, and especially of Marilla’s mothering instincts, have been observed by several scholars4. Moreover, Alston (2008, 3) has studied family in mainly British but also in some American and Canadian children’s literature, AGG included. Some aspects of family and parenting in Harry are studied in Harry Potter’s World – Multidisciplinary Critical Perspectives, edited by Heilman, in particular by Kornfeld and Prothro. This study is relevant because of the increasing number of “unnatural” families (to borrow from Zipes 2006, 131); thus stories and studies of parenting and especially foster, adoptive, and step parenting are needed. It is relevant to study different family configurations (such as adoptive and foster families) as well as different ways of parenting in literature because the authors may attempt 1 Henceforth abbreviated to AGG. 2 Henceforth abbreviated to Philosopher’s Stone. 3 Henceforth abbreviated to AA. 4 Doody (1997, 18), Gubar (2001, 65) and Devereux (2007, 367). 2 to improve reality through criticism of current parenting methods. In essence, according to Hunt (2001, 271), “all fiction could be called fantasy” because it inevitably portrays a world that differs from pragmatic actuality. Nevertheless fantasy is generally described as portraying “some obvious deviance from ‘consensus reality’,... usually a change in physical laws” and Harry as fantasy belongs to “excursions into other, parallel worlds” (ibid.). However, the novel could be viewed as not so fantastic that it would not allow literal-minded readings in some sense, such as psychoanalytical. It is necessary for all fantasy worlds to have something in common with the actual world because, as Hunt (2001, 271) notes, “a total difference from the [actual] world would not be writable or comprehensible”. Ryan (1991, 33) says that the Textual Actual World (TAW) is accessible from Actual World (AW), for example, if “both worlds respect the principles of noncontradiction and of excluded middle” meaning that the worlds are logically compatible. Harry fulfils this criterion. Anne, instead, seems to be also physically compatible with AW because it fulfils Ryan’s requirement that the worlds “share natural laws” (ibid.). In addition, Harry as well as Anne fulfil Ryan’s (1991, 45) requirement for psychological credibility; that “we believe that the mental properties of the characters could be those of members of AW” and thus “we regard the characters as complete human beings to whom we can relate as persons”. At least the main characters in the Harry (and all in Anne) series do not seem to break the relation of psychological credibility; they are not unidimensional nor are their inner lives “rudimentary”. Ryan (ibid.) says that psychoanalytical theories are “literally applicable as interpretive models” for texts that respect psychological credibility. Thus attachment theory is a valid interpretive model not only for Anne but also for Harry. The Dursleys, however, do not fit this requirement as they are exaggerated—parodies of real people—even though they do behave like real people could (and some do). Harry nevertheless fits the requirement of psychological credibility as do most of his other surrogate parents. Both Anne and Harry are Bildungsromane following the protagonists’ maturation process into adulthood. According to Cockrell, Harry is not only “a hero tale of the adolescent’s journey to 3 selfhood”, but “it is also a tale of the search for family and belonging” (2002, 21)—like Anne. While Harry is fantasy in genre and English, AGG is realistic (and may be seen as partly autobiographical) and Canadian. However, both stories have something in common with the fairy- tale “Cinderella”. Grimes (2002, 102) says that just like in fairy tales, “wicked surrogates appear in the bildungsroman”. In classic fairy tales, “the despised parents who discipline or ignore the child must be separated from the idealized parents who love and care for their offspring” because children cannot comprehend that both qualities exist in the same parents (Grimes 2002, 91). Thus children reading fairy tales or Harry Potter novels are able to detest “one set of parents, the disciplinarians, while remaining loyal to the beloved ones” (ibid.). The Dursleys are the evil version of the Potters. The evil stepmother portrays the part of the parent who disciplines and limits the child’s freedom and this is the part the child wants to hate while the fairy godmother, in contrast, represents the part of the parent that is idealized, the provider of protection and sustenance (Grimes 2002, 92). Anne’s foster mothers, Mrs. Thomas and Mrs. Hammond seem to be examples of the Cinderella-like evil stepmothers (and Mrs. Blewett would be another example) while in Harry, Petunia is the archetypal evil stepmother. Zipes (2006, 131) says that stepparents and stepchildren need to deal with moral choices as they are placed in ‘unnatural’ (or ‘undesirable’) situations that may “lead to the undermining of their self-interests”. In addition, he claims that “[i]t is extremely difficult to integrate oneself or to be integrated into a family or tribe with which one does not have kinship” (ibid.). However, even Zipes himself says that there are a number of “ways to live harmoniously in [these] ‘unnatural’ relations” (ibid.). This thesis is divided into four main chapters. In the next chapter (2), I shall discuss orphans and adoption today and in the Victorian era. In chapter 3, I will discuss attachment theory and in chapter 4, I will concentrate on parenting and on how the orphan protagonist in each novel is parented. In the final chapter (5), I shall conclude how foster parenting is represented in the novels and what kind of similarities and differences exist between the representations of adoptive and foster parenting in the realist Victorian novel series and the contemporary fantasy novel series. 4 2 Orphans and Adoption – Real and Literary Orphans Bowlby (1976, 85) says that if the child’s ‘natural home group’ (mother and father) “fails for any reason, near relatives [have traditionally] take[n] responsibility for the child”. According to Bowlby (1976, 132), “it may be supposed that in skilled hands adoption can give a child nearly as good a chance of a happy home life as that of the child brought up in his own home”. Anne has no relatives but she is eventually adopted by Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert, middle-aged siblings. It seems that in her new home she is just as happy a she would have been in her own home—and materially, she is even better off living with the Cuthberts than with her own parents, Walter and Bertha Shirley, who were, according to Mrs. Thomas, “a pair of babies and as poor as church mice” (AGG, 38). Harry would have undoubtedly had a happier childhood with his own parents but as he is a hero, he must be free of parental control. As Grimes (2002, 93) says, Harry’s “dead parents both abandon him to the mercy of a frightening world and free him to make his own adventures”. 2.1 Anne and Harry as Literary Orphans According to Mills (1987, 228), “almost every orphan novel... is about the search for family; the protagonist finds a home, finds loving and caring adults to whom he can belong”. Mills (ibid.) observes that even though the Romantic child protagonist “ha[s] endured grief, loss, neglect, abuse, poverty, and friendlessness, [he/she] appear[s] absolutely unscathed and unscarred by these experiences”. More importantly, Mills (ibid.) notes, “years of lovelessness have done nothing to temper these children’s seemingly boundless capacity to give and receive love”. According to Mills (1987, 230), “the innocent, unspoiled, Romantic child” shows no moral growth in these novels because “they already represent a kind of moral perfection”. Thus the “[a]dult attempts at moral instruction are… almost invariably… wrong-headed and repressive” (ibid.). In AGG, this happens when Marilla, “ha[ving] plumed herself” for a “wholesome punishment” (Anne’s apology to Mrs. Lynde), is dismayed to find “that Anne was actually enjoying her valley of humiliation—was revelling in the thoroughness of her abasement” (AGG, 64). In fact, Mills (1987, 230) observes, as the children remain essentially unchanged, others around them are changed enormously; “Anne 5 brings joy to Matthew and helps Marilla to mellow…”. Three weeks after Anne’s arrival Marilla says “…it seems as if she’d been here always. I can’t imagine the place without her” (AGG, 77). Mills (1987, 235–236) says that while “[e]arly-[twentieth] century orphans compel love from others by giving it freely themselves; late-century orphans are compelled to give love by getting it unstintingly, even undeservedly, from their foster parents”. While Harry is not loved by the Dursleys, he has a host of other parent figures who do love him—yet, he does seem to earn to be loved. Only Dumbledore seems to somehow fit Mills’s description; he patiently loves Harry even though Harry is sometimes very angry at him and shouts at him (as teenagers may often do). Mills (1987, 236) observes that love also “involves a willingness to administer parental discipline” which “is directed toward the child’s moral growth, and moral growth is a critical component of maturity”. According to Mills (1987, 237), while adults in the early-century orphan novels “learn to become more childlike”, in the late-century novels “children learn to grow up”. Harry, too, grows up, and learns to rely on himself—and he must as most of his primary parent figures die. This enables the teenage (or pre-teenage) reader to come to terms with the figurative dying (or “killing”) of parents; young people must become independent and self-sufficient and learn not to rely on their parents anymore. Thus in the beginning, the parents need to be dead so that Harry is free to have adventures, later (some of) the new parent figures need to die so that he learns to rely on himself and becomes independent. 2.1.1 ‘Urchins, Orphans, Monsters, and Victims’ – Orphans in the Victorian Era Seelye (2005, 134) notes that “[t]he orphan… is a peculiar Victorian construct used to emphasize the horrors of being separated from the orderly comforts of middle-class society, a figure of helplessness, lacking the power to resist whatever outrages that are visited upon it”. In Victorian culture, an orphan was “an outsider, a body without family ties to the community, a foreigner” (Peters 2000, 6). Orphans were “linked with other outsiders, Gypsies, criminals, and colonized subjects, none of whom were thought to be properly rooted within English society” (Cunningham 6 2003, 737). Orphans of both the poor and the middle class were distrusted because of their “unknown familial origins, combined with a suspicion of illegitimacy” (Peters 2000, 16). In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, “[a] large part of society still regarded adoptable children with a mixture of pity and suspicion…” (Berebitsky 2006, 30). The suspicion towards orphans appears in AGG when Mrs. Lynde is astonished to discover that Marilla and Matthew are adopting an orphan boy. After all, he could set their house on fire like another orphan Mrs. Lynde has heard of. Yet it seems that a girl would be even worse than a boy since she is likely to be a poisoner. Thus Mrs. Lynde strongly disapproves of the idea of adopting an orphan – it is “an unheard of innovation” in Avonlea (AGG, 11). It is clear that, to Mrs. Lynde, the advent of an orphan poses a threat to the Cuthberts, if not to everyone in Avonlea. Marilla admits to having “had some qualms [her]self” concerning the adoption (AGG, 13). Matthew, however, who is so “terrible set on [adopting]” (and also on keeping Anne), does not seem to have any qualms (AGG, 13). The orphan is, nevertheless, an outsider, foreign, to both Marilla and Mrs. Lynde, as well as to Matthew. As Robinson (1999, 22) notes, Marilla insists on a ‘born Canadian’ to keep “the risks of foreignness at a minimum”. In addition, “the newly adopted orphan will be given schooling, a family, and a home, all of which will help him overcome the remaining signifiers of difference” (ibid.). Barry (1997, 421) observes that “Anne comes ‘from away’ and is an unwelcome replacement to the expected [boy] child, like the changelings of Celtic lore”. Therefore, Anne is not only an ‘outsider’ because she is an orphan and comes from Nova Scotia (on the mainland), but she is also not what she should be, a he. She is a ‘changeling’, a fairy-like girl left at the railway station instead of the expected boy. Peters (2000, 18–19) says that the concept pharmakon “contain[s] simultaneously both the poison and the cure” and “the orphan plays a pharmaceutical function in Victorian culture: [it] embodies a surplus excess to be expelled to the colonies”. These “surplus children” were exported between 1850 and 1950 from the mother country to the empire, for example Canada, as white settlers (Cunningham 2003, 737). Doody Jones (1997b, 425) notes that these “‘imported’ orphans… 7 were considered the lowest of the low, ‘London street-Arabs,’ in Marilla’s slighting reference”. Matthew had first wanted to adopt a “Barnardo boy” (AGG, 11–12) which alludes “to Dr. Barnardo and other charitable individuals and organizations in Britain that sent thousands of street children… to Canada and other parts of the Empire to be trained in some useful occupation” (Dawson 2002, 33). Nelson (2001, 54) says that in the nineteenth century, “[i]n a nation largely without child labour laws or welfare benefits, orphans without class standing” usually went to the territories or worked as servants to earn their living. Thus in literature (that reflected the expectations of society), “[e]ven the waifs who are lucky enough to be adopted,… should expect to repay the benevolence shown them in a practical way...” (ibid.). Accordingly, Anne is expected to work at Green Gables. She contributes to the household mainly by doing daily chores and thus ‘pays’ for her upkeep. Nelson (ibid.) says, however, that various early twentieth-century (literary) orphans find that, in their new homes, “their real work is emotional” (instead of physical); “their task is nothing less than to heal the adult world”. In AGG, it turns out, eventually, that also Anne’s task is mainly emotional—Matthew ‘awakens’ and is able to ‘father’ (and dote on) someone. Similarly, Marilla’s emotions are awakened by Anne; Something warm and pleasant welled up in Marilla’s heart at touch of that thin little hand in her own—a throb of the maternity she had missed, perhaps. Its very unaccustomedness and sweetness disturbed her. She hastened to restore her sensations to their normal calm by inculcating a moral. (AGG, 66–67.) When Marilla promises that Anne can go to the picnic, …Anne cast herself into Marilla’s arms and rapturously kissed her sallow cheek. It was the first time in her whole life that childish lips had voluntarily touched Marilla’s face. Again that sudden sensation of startling sweetness thrilled her. She was secretly vastly pleased at Anne’s impulsive caress, which was probably the reason why she said brusquely: “There, there, never mind your kissing nonsense. I’d sooner see you doing strictly as you’re told.” (AGG, 78.) Rubio (1992, 70) observes that Anne gives “Matthew and Marilla… a much fuller and happier life than they had before”. In fact, the Cuthberts “grow younger and more human as the result of their