Forensic Discovery Dan Farmer Wietse Venema U.S. Corporate and Government Sales (800) 382–3419 [email protected] For sales outside the U.S., please contact: International Sales [email protected] Visit us on the Web: www.awprofessional.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Farmer, Dan. Forensic discovery / Dan Farmer, Wietse Venema. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-201-63497-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Computer security. 2. Data recovery (Computer science) 3. Forensic sciences. I. Venema, Wietse. II. Title. QA76.9.A25F34 2004 005.8—dc22 2004024189 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education, Inc. Rights and Contracts Department One Lake Street Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 ISBN 0-201-63497-X Text printed in the United States on recycled paper at Courier in Westford, Massachusetts. First printing, December 2004 002_farmer_venema_toc.qxp 12/9/2004 1:41 PM Page vii CONTENTS Preface xiii About the Authors xix Part I: Basic Concepts.....................................................................................1 Chapter 1: The Spirit of Forensic Discovery................................................3 1.1 Introduction.....................................................................................3 1.2 Unusual Activity Stands Out........................................................4 1.3 The Order of Volatility (OOV).......................................................5 1.4 Layers and Illusions........................................................................8 1.5 The Trustworthiness of Information..........................................10 1.6 The Fossilization of Deleted Information..................................12 1.7 Archaeology vs. Geology.............................................................13 Chapter 2: Time Machines.............................................................................17 2.1 Introduction...................................................................................17 2.2 The First Signs of Trouble............................................................17 2.3 What’s Up, MAC? An Introduction to MACtimes..................18 2.4 Limitations of MACtimes............................................................20 2.5 Argus: Shedding Additional Light on the Situation................21 2.6 Panning for Gold: Looking for Time in Unusual Places.........25 2.7 DNS and Time...............................................................................28 2.8 Journaling File Systems and MACtimes....................................31 2.9 The Foibles of Time.......................................................................34 2.10 Conclusion.....................................................................................35 Part II: Exploring System Abstractions....................................................37 Chapter 3: File System Basics........................................................................39 3.1 Introduction...................................................................................39 3.2 An Alphabet Soup of File Systems.............................................40 3.3 UNIX File Organization...............................................................40 3.4 UNIX File Names..........................................................................44 3.5 UNIX Pathnames..........................................................................44 3.6 UNIX File Types............................................................................45 Regular Files..............................................................................45 Directories..................................................................................45 Symbolic Links..........................................................................46 IPC Endpoints...........................................................................46 Device Files................................................................................47 3.7 AFirst Look Under the Hood: File System Internals..............48 3.8 UNIX File System Layout............................................................54 3.9 I’ve Got You Under My Skin: Delving into the File System...55 3.10 The Twilight Zone, or Dangers Below the File System Interface..........................................................................................56 3.11 Conclusion.....................................................................................57 Chapter 4: File System Analysis...................................................................59 4.1 Introduction...................................................................................59 4.2 First Contact...................................................................................59 4.3 Preparing the Victim’s File System for Analysis......................60 4.4 Capturing the Victim’s File System Information......................61 4.5 Sending a Disk Image Across the Network..............................63 4.6 Mounting Disk Images on an Analysis Machine.....................65 4.7 Existing File MACtimes...............................................................68 4.8 Detailed Analysis of Existing Files.............................................70 4.9 Wrapping Up the Existing File Analysis...................................72 4.10 Intermezzo: What Happens When a File Is Deleted?..............73 Parent Directory Entry.............................................................75 Parent Directory Attributes.....................................................75 Inode Blocks..............................................................................75 Data Blocks ...............................................................................76 4.11 Deleted File MACtimes................................................................76 4.12 Detailed Analysis of Deleted Files..............................................77 4.13 Exposing Out-of-Place Files by Their Inode Number.............78 4.14 Tracing a Deleted File Back to Its Original Location................80 4.15 Tracing a Deleted File Back by Its Inode Number....................81 4.16 Another Lost Son Comes Back Home........................................82 4.17 Loss of Innocence..........................................................................82 4.18 Conclusion.....................................................................................85 Chapter 5: Systems and Subversion............................................................87 5.1 Introduction...................................................................................87 5.2 The Standard Computer System Architecture..........................88 5.3 The UNIX System Life Cycle, from Start-up to Shutdown.....89 5.4 Case Study: System Start-up Complexity.................................90 5.5 Kernel Configuration Mechanisms............................................92 5.6 Protecting Forensic Information with Kernel Security Levels..............................................................................95 5.7 Typical Process and System Status Tools...................................96 5.8 How Process and System Status Tools Work............................99 5.9 Limitations of Process and System Status Tools.....................100 5.10 Subversion with Rootkit Software............................................101 5.11 Command-Level Subversion.....................................................102 5.12 Command-Level Evasion and Detection.................................102 5.13 Library-Level Subversion..........................................................106 5.14 Kernel-Level Subversion............................................................107 5.15 Kernel Rootkit Installation.........................................................107 5.16 Kernel Rootkit Operation..........................................................108 5.17 Kernel Rootkit Detection and Evasion.....................................111 5.18 Conclusion ..................................................................................115 Chapter 6: Malware Analysis Basics .........................................................117 6.1 Introduction.................................................................................117 6.2 The Dangers of Dynamic Program Analysis...........................118 6.3 Program Confinement with Hard Virtual Machines.............119 6.4 Program Confinement with Soft Virtual Machines................119 6.5 The Dangers of Confinement with Soft Virtual Machines....121 6.6 Program Confinement with Jails and chroot()....................122 6.7 Dynamic Analysis with System-Call Monitors......................123 6.8 Program Confinement with System-Call Censors.................126 6.9 Program Confinement with System-Call Spoofing...............129 6.10 The Dangers of Confinement with System Calls...................131 6.11 Dynamic Analysis with Library-Call Monitors......................132 6.12 Program Confinement with Library Calls...............................133 6.13 The Dangers of Confinement with Library Calls...................135 6.14 Dynamic Analysis at the Machine-Instruction Level............136 6.15 Static Analysis and Reverse Engineering................................136 6.16 Small Programs Can Have Many Problems............................140 6.17 Malware Analysis Countermeasures.......................................141 6.18 Conclusion...................................................................................141 Part III: Beyond the Abstractions............................................................143 Chapter 7: The Persistence of Deleted File Information.......................145 7.1 Introduction.................................................................................145 7.2 Examples of Deleted Information Persistence........................146 7.3 Measuring the Persistence of Deleted File Contents.............147 7.4 Measuring the Persistence of Deleted File MACtimes..........149 7.5 The Brute-Force Persistence of Deleted File MACtimes.......149 7.6 The Long-Term Persistence of Deleted File MACtimes .......153 7.7 The Impact of User Activity on Deleted File MACtimes......154 7.8 The Trustworthiness of Deleted File Information..................156 7.9 Why Deleted File Information Can Survive Intact................157 7.10 Conclusion...................................................................................159 Chapter 8: Beyond Processes.......................................................................161 8.1 Introduction.................................................................................161 8.2 The Basics of Virtual Memory...................................................162 8.3 The Basics of Memory Pages.....................................................164 8.4 Files and Memory Pages............................................................164 8.5 Anonymous Memory Pages......................................................165 8.6 Capturing Memory.....................................................................165 8.7 The savecoreCommand..........................................................167 Memory Device Files: /dev/memand /dev/kmem..............168 Swap Space..............................................................................169 Other Memory Locations .....................................................169 8.8 Static Analysis: Recognizing Memory from Files...................171 8.9 Recovering Encrypted File Contents Without Keys..............172 Creating an Encrypted File...................................................172 Recovering the Encrypted File from Main Memory.........172 8.10 File System Blocks vs. Memory Page Technique....................173 8.11 Recognizing Files in Memory...................................................175 8.12 Dynamic Analysis: The Persistence of Data in Memory.......177 8.13 File Persistence in Memory.......................................................179 8.14 The Persistence of Nonfile, or Anonymous, Data..................180 8.15 Swap Persistence.........................................................................182 8.16 The Persistence of Memory Through the Boot Process.........182 8.17 The Trustworthiness and Tenacity of Memory Data.............182 8.18 Conclusion...................................................................................185 Appendix A The Coroner’s Toolkit and Related Software..................................187 A.1 Introduction.................................................................................187 A.2 Data Gathering with grave-robber........................................187 A.3 Time Analysis with mactime.....................................................188 A.4 File Reconstruction with lazarus............................................189 A.5 Low-Level File System Utilities................................................191 A.6 Low-Level Memory Utilities.....................................................192 Appendix B Data Gathering and the Order of Volatility....................................193 B.1 Introduction.................................................................................193 B.2 The Basics of Volatility...............................................................193 B.3 The State of the Art.....................................................................194 B.4 How to Freeze a Computer.......................................................195 Before You Start.......................................................................196 Actually Collecting Data.......................................................197 B.5 Conclusion...................................................................................198 References 199 Index 207 PREFACE Today, only minutes pass between plugging in to the Internet and being attacked by some other machine—and that’s only the background noise level of nontargeted attacks. There was a time when a computer could tick away year after year without coming under attack. For examples of Internet background radiation studies, see CAIDA 2003, Cymru 2004, or IMS 2004. With this book, we summarize experiences in post-mortem intrusion analysis that we accumulated over a decade. During this period, the Internet grew explosively, from less than a hundred thousand connected hosts to more than a hundred million (ISC 2004). This increase in the number of connected hosts led to an even more dramatic—if less sur- prising—increase in the frequency of computer and network intrusions. As the network changed character and scope, so did the character and scope of the intrusions that we faced. We’re pleased to share some of these learning opportunities with our readers. In that same decade, however, little changed in the way that computer systems handle information. In fact, we feel that it is safe to claim that computer systems haven’t changed fundamentally in the last 35 years— the entire lifetime of the Internet and of many operating systems that are in use today, including Linux, Windows, and many others. Although our observations are derived from today’s systems, we optimistically expect that at least some of our insights will remain valid for another decade. What You Can Expect to Learn from This Book The premise of the book is that forensic information can be found every- where you look. With this guiding principle in mind, we develop tools to collect information from obvious and not-so-obvious sources, we walk through analyses of real intrusions in detail, and we discuss the limita- tions of our approach. Although we illustrate our approach with particular forensic tools in spe- cific system environments, we do not provide cookbooks for how to use those tools, nor do we offer checklists for step-by-step investigation. Instead, we present a background on how information persists, how infor- mation about past events may be recovered, and how the trustworthiness of that information may be affected by deliberate or accidental processes. In our case studies and examples, we deviate from traditional computer forensics and head toward the study of system dynamics. Volatility and the persistence of file systems and memory are pervasive topics in our book. And while the majority of our examples are from Solaris, FreeBSD, and Linux systems, Microsoft’s Windows shows up on occasion as well. Our emphasis is on the underlying principles that these systems have in common: we look for inherent properties of computer systems, rather than accidental differences or superficial features. Our global themes are problem solving, analysis, and discovery, with a focus on reconstruction of past events. This approach may help you to dis- cover whyevents transpired, but that is generally outside the scope of this work. Knowing what happened will leave you better prepared the next time something bad is about to occur, even when that knowledge is not sufficient to prevent future problems. We should note up front, however, that we do not cover the detection or prevention of intrusions. We do show that traces from one intrusion can lead to the discovery of other intrusions, and we point out how forensic information may be affected by system-protection mechanisms, and by the failures of those mechanisms. Our Intended Audience We wrote this book for readers who want to deepen their understanding of how computer systems work, as well as for those who are likely to become involved with the technical aspects of computer intrusion or sys- tem analysis. System administrators, incident responders, other com- puter security professionals, and forensic analysts will benefit from reading this book, but so will anyone who is concerned about the impact of computer forensics on privacy. Although we have worked hard to make the material accessible to non- expert readers, we definitely do not target the novice computer user. As a minimal requirement, we assume strong familiarity with the basic con- cepts of UNIX or Windows file systems, networking, and processes. Organization of This Book The book has three parts: we present foundations first, proceed with analysis of processes, systems, and files, and end the book with discov- ery. We do not expect you to read everything in the order presented. Nevertheless, we suggest that you start with the first chapter, as it intro- duces all the major themes that return throughout the book. In Part I, “Basic Concepts,” we introduce general high-level ideas, as well as basic techniques that we rely on in later chapters. ■■ Chapter 1, “The Spirit of Forensic Discovery,” shows how general properties of computer architecture can impact post-mortem analy- sis. Many of the limitations and surprises that we encounter later in the book can already be anticipated by reading this chapter. ■■ Chapter 2, “Time Machines,” introduces the concept of timelining, using examples of host-based and network-based information, including information from the domain name system. We look at an intrusion that stretches out over an entire year, and we show exam- ples of finding time information in non-obvious places. In Part II, “Exploring System Abstractions,” we delve into the abstrac- tions of file systems, processes, and operating systems. The focus of these chapters is on analysis: making sense of information found on a com- puter system and judging the trustworthiness of our findings. ■■ Chapter 3, “File System Basics,” introduces fundamental file system concepts, as well as forensic tools and techniques that we will use in subsequent chapters. ■■ Chapter 4, “File System Analysis,” unravels an intrusion by examin- ing the file system of a compromised machine in detail. We look at both existing files and deleted information. As in Chapter 2, we use correlation to connect different observations, and to determine their consistency. ■■ Chapter 5, “Systems and Subversion,” is about the environment in which user processes and operating systems execute. We look at sub- version of observations, ranging from straightforward changes to system utilities to almost undetectable malicious kernel modules, and detection of such subversion. ■■ Chapter 6, “Malware Analysis Basics,” presents techniques to dis- cover the purpose of a process or a program file that was left behind after an intrusion. We also discuss safeguards to prevent malware from escaping, and their limitations. In Part III, “Beyond the Abstractions,” we look beyond the constraints of the file, process, and operating system abstractions. The focus of this part is on discovery, as we study the effects of system architecture on the decay of information. ■■ Chapter 7, “The Persistence of Deleted File Information,” shows that large amounts of deleted file information can survive intact for extended periods. We find half-lives on the order of two to four weeks on actively used file systems.