RESEARCH ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION (REPOA) The Research on poverty Alleviation (REPOA) is a not-for- profit Non-Governmental Organisation registered in Tanzania in November, 1994. Its overall objective is to deepen the understanding of causes, extent, nature, rate of change and means of combating poverty in Tanzania. The specific objectives focus on development of local research capacity, development of poverty research network, enhancing stakeholders’ knowledge of poverty issues, contributing to policy and forging linkages between FOREIGN AID, GRASSROOTS PARTICIPATION AND research(ers) and users. POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN TANZANIA: THE Since its establishment REPOA has been generously supported by the Netherlands HESAWA FIASCO Government. REPOA RESEARCH REPORTS contain the edited and externally reviewed results of research financed by REPOA. REPOA SPECIAL PAPERS contain the edited findings of commissioned studies in furtherance of REPOA’s programmes for research, training and capacity building. It is REPOA’s policy that authors of Research Reports and special Papers are free to use material contained therein in other publications with REPOA’s acknowledgement. Views expressed in the Research Reports and Special Paper are those of the authors alone and should not be attributed to REPOA. S. Rugumamu Further information concerning REPOA can be obtained by writing to : Research on Poverty Alleviation. P. O. Box 33223, Dar es salaam, Tanzania. Tel: 255-22-2700083; 0811 326 064 ISNN 0856-41827 Fax: 255-51-75738 Email: [email protected] [email protected] RESEARCH ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION Research Report No. 00.1 FOREIGN AID, GRASSROOTS PARTICIPATION AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN TANZANIA: THE HESAWA FIASCO S. Rugumamu University of Dar es Salaam Research Report No. 00.1 Published by: Research on Poverty Alleviation P.O. Box 33223 Dar es Salaam Printed by: Kitabu Commercial Printers P.O. Box 78495 Dar es Salaam ©REPOA, 1999 ISSN 0856-41827 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Literature Review 2 2.1 General Overview 2 2.2 Foreign Aid and Poverty in Tanzania 9 3. Statement of the Problem and Objectives 10 3.1 General Overview 10 3.2 Research Hypotheses 12 3.3 Coverage and Methodology 13 3.4 S ignificance of the Study 14 . 4. Background to the Study 14 4.1 Background to HESAWA Program 14 4.2 Swedish Aid to Water Sector 16 4.3 Program Organizational Structure 17 4.4 Program Planning and Implementation 19 4.5 Program Objectives 22 4.6 Overall Progress: Water 22 4.7 Sanitation arid Human Resources Development 23 5. Research Findings and Analysis' 25 5.1 General Overview 25 5.2 Characteristics of Sample Population 26 5.3 Findings and Analysis 29 5.3.1 General Overview 29 5.3.2 Participation: Whose Program? 30 5.3.3 Participation: How Effective? 33 5.3.4 Perceptions about Sustainability 39 5.3.5 Technological Sustainability 40 5.3.6 Lessons from Perceptions of End-users 42 5.3.7 Financial Sustainability 45 5.3.8 Institutional Sustainability 47 6. Conclusion References 49 Abstract The study set to examine foreign aid effectiveness in the poverty alleviation in rural Tanzania. More specifically, it sought to investigate the impact of the Health through Sanitation and Water (HESAWA) program among the rural population of Mwanza and Kagera Regions. Twelve villages were studied. HESAWA is an aid-supported program through SIDA and Sweden. The Government of Tanzania contributes marginally through annual budgetary allocations. Although the program's core objectives did not directly target poverty alleviation, its very emphasis on economic growth and social development among the rural poor presupposes poverty alleviation as an indirect final objective. Moreover, from the early 1990s, the objectives of international development cooperation by various donors largely shifted in favour of the war on poverty reduction. Thanks are largely to the conclusion of the Cold War and the end of the double standards behaviour among Western donor governments. In a similar policy shift, HESAWA's overall mandate was enlarged and focused more pointedly on the poverty reduction issues. The study found that the program was, on the whole, a failure. Its philosophical orientation which emphasized people's participation in drawing up the program's objectives, plans and strategies seem to have been hijacked from the very start by the HESAWA bureaucracy as well as some vested national functionaries and powerful local interests. Behind the smokescreen of peasant participation, these interests tended to enjoy most of the program's benefits. Water points and dug wells were arbitrarily located to suit the interests of the powerful local elites. Little wonder that the majority of the poor peasants continued to commute long distances to public water points and wells just as they had done before to traditional wells. The quality and quantity of water were perceived to be poor by most of the peasants that were interviewed. The women, in particular, were dissatisfied with the quality of water, its unreliability and, indeed, its high tariffs. Moreover, HESAWA's failure to institutionalize the practice of participatory decision-making in its program's activities marginalized almost everybody especially women. Indeed, it is important to emphasize that women were identified by HESAWA as one of its primary target population. In addition, it set aside specific instructional programs and mobilization activities for women. In order to ensure full participation of women, fifty percent of the members on the HESAWA Water Committees were supposed to be women. Understandably, more women than men collect water for their respective households. However, the study found that due to generally weak mobilization campaigns and inadequate training programs by HESAWA, fewer women than men participated in the day-to-day running of program's activities. Not surprisingly, the burning concerns of women were hardly addressed by the male-dominated, often inept, Water Committees. Finally, the study found that HESAWA program was not likely to be sustainable in the medium and long runs. Here, two arguments are in order. Firstly, various water technologies that were installed in different villages were neither locally replicable, nor financially affordable. They were not only of different levels of technological sophistication but they were largely inappropriate in a predominantly peasant setting. The fact that well over two-thirds of the water facilities in the phased out villages in the two regions were in disrepair, illustrates what actually is in store for the entire HESAWA program. ii Secondly, and closely related to the previous argument, is the issue of sustainability after donor financial contributions come to an end. According to this study it is not self evident that either the government of Tanzania or the current beneficiaries are likely to fill the void. This reflects the way the programme was poorly conceived, designed and implemented. iii FOREIGN AID, GRASSROOTS PARTICIPATION AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN TANZANIA: THE HESAWA FIASCO 1. Introduction "We commit ourselves to the goal of eradicating poverty in the world, through decisive national actions and international cooperation, as an ethical, social, political and economic imperative of mankind". Copenhagen Declaration, 1995 commitment #2 Foreign aid is one of the major policy instruments of international cooperation, which, among other things, aims at transferring critical development-oriented resources from the North to the South.1 In more recent times, foreign aid has increasingly been targeted at fighting poverty reduction. As the opening quotation from the World Summit for Social Development aptly indicates, poverty reduction in the South is a collective international effort. In fact, both donor and recipient governments are agreed that, if prudently utilized, such resources would not only maximize economic growth, but also would improve the general welfare and alleviate pervasive poverty among the population. Why is it, then, that despite massive infusions of financial and technical assistance from the North, the economic, and social conditions in Sub- Saharan Africa, particularly in Tanzania are dramatically worse off than they were 30 years ago? Were economic development, poverty eradication or promotion democracy the overriding objectives of donor agencies and the recipient government in the first place? To what extent has foreign aid sought to address the real needs of the very poor in rural settings? These and similar questions structure and define the parameters of our study and analysis. In one of his seminal works, Resources, Values and Development, Professor Amartya Sen (1980) extensively elaborated on the concept of poverty. For him, and most scholars agree, poverty should be broadly understood as the lack of opportunity for an individual or group of people in society to achieve some minimally acceptable levels of basic life. These range from the most elementary aspects of life like proper nourishment, adequate clothing and shelter, avoidance of preventable morbidity to more complex social achievements such as taking part in the life of the community, being able to appear in public without shame and the ' 1 In this study, trie term "North" is used as a shorthand description of the world's developed or industrialized countries; and the term "South" encompasses the less developed countries ranging from the oil-rich but non-industrialized members of the OPEC to the poorest and the least developed countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. 1 Foreign Aid, Grassroots Participation and Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania: S. Rugumamu like. The opportunity of converting personal incomes into capabilities to function depends on a variety of personal circumstances (including age, gender, proneness to illness, disabilities and so on) and social surroundings (including epidemiological characteristics, physical and social environments, public services of health and education and so on). However, he warns us that proper policy interventions targeting the poor are more complex to design and time consuming to implement than most experts in business tend to imagine. Despite huge resource transfers to sub-Saharan Africa, only modest gains have been made in terms of economic growth and poverty reduction. This is reflected in weak growth in the productive sectors, poor export performance, mounting debt, deterioration in social conditions, environmental degradation, and increasing decay in institutional capacity. Of the forty-seven countries classified by the UN as the least developed, no fewer than thirty-two are found in sub-Saharan Africa. Zambia, Zaire and Madagascar were added to the listjn. 1992 by the UN General Assembly (Harsh, 1992). Moreover, the incidence and depth of poverty have been on the rise since the mid-1970s. It has been estimated that well over 50 percent of its population lives in poverty. The World Bank (1993) predicted that given the region's exceptionally high population growth rates - over 3 percent a year - and low economic growth rates, as many as 100 million more Africans could be living in poverty by the end of this decade! Reflecting on this scenario, the 1997 Human Development Report concluded that "... in a global economy worth $25 trillion, this is a^scandjal..- reflecting shameful inequalities and inexcusable failure of national and international policy" (UNDP, 1997:2). In a similar but cautious vein, an earlier World Bank Report (1990:127) had revealingly concluded, that "aid has done much less than might have been hoped to reduce poverty." The study to investigate the relationship between foreign and poverty reduction cannot therefore be more timely. The research report is divided into five substantive sections. The literature review is in section two. Section three presents the research problem and the objectives of the study. The background to the study is discussed in section four. Section five presents and discusses the research findings. The last section is the conclusion and recommendations. 2. Literature Review 2.1 General Overview The end of the Cold War undermined the ideological, military and political foundations of the international order that had prevailed after the late 1940s, a period in which the concept of development co-operation emerged as a new incarnation of the Western idea of progress (Segasti, 1998). From the early 1990s, the imperatives of human solidarity, consolidation of democracy and poverty eradication are being paraded by the North as the emerging rationale for development co-operation in the new millennium. The recent World Bank thinking about poverty and poverty reduction in the South falls under the same ideological rubric. Since the 2 Foreign Aid, Grassroots Participation and Poverty Alleviation in Tanzania: S. Rugumamu publication of the 1990 World Development Report, structural poverty reduction has once again been brought to the centre stage of development co-operation. It ushered in a new poverty agenda by articulating the importance of the policy reform to reduce poverty and provided the basis for a better aid strategy. In order to reduce poverty, the report recommended that external assistance should be more tightly linked to the assessment of the efforts that are being made by would-be recipients on the poverty reduction front (World Bank, 1990:iv). The report proposes three-pronged policy combinations. The first is the rekindling of economic growth. However, since the benefits of economic growth might fail to trickle-down, as has been the case previously, the report suggests that growth has to be labour-intensive in character, thus generating strong demand for labour. This emphasis in the new poverty agenda cautions governments against over-subsidizing capital, which leads to capital-for-labour substitution. However, it should be quickly pointed out that the key issue in this strategy is not to increase their labour intensity, but to raise returns to their labour. The second prong suggests a cnange iiMhe composition of public expenditures. The report further proposes that governments should help the poor by increasing the share of its expenditure that goes to education, nutrition, and health and by increasing the share of education and health spending that reaches the poor. In other words, how much does each dollar of public money contribute towards poverty reduction? The third prong is the provision of social safety nets, that is, special government schemes targeted on the poor who are unable to enter the labour market. This World Bank report has had profound impact on development cooperation in the 1990s. Poverty and poverty reduction particularly among the rural populations has become one of the primary organising principles in the aid process in the 1990s. Understandably, this novel development co-operation philosophy has recently been embraced by almost all major bilateral donors and recipients alike (Baulch, 1996" Sawada 1996).2 While the components of the World Bank's strategy have some resemblance to the distribution with growth and basic needs strategies of the 1970s, the present strategy is geared much more toward private sector growth than was the case previously. Its underlying analysis rests on the assumption that widespread adoption of stabilization and structural adjustment measures will create a conducive climate for the private sector growth which will, in turn, provide self-advancement opportunities for the poor households through wage earnings and self employment (Cornia, et al. 1987). Much as there are general agreements in the literature as to the means to achieve significant poverty reduction, three disturbing differences of opinion remain. First, there are issues of questionable legitimacy of external agencies in determining sensitive policy agendas like the 2 In 1993, for example, Baroness Lynda Chalker described reducing poverty as the "central" aim of the British aid program. Cited in Maxwell (1996:120). 3