Forays  into  Alchemical  Pottery,  Part  1:  India,  with  some  Chymical  Arguments   and  Alchemical  Retorts       Compiled  by  Frederick  R.  Dannaway     Eremitic Sciences Monograph Series from The Chymical Philosophers and The Delaware Tea Society     Notes  on  pottery  from  Indian  alchemical  traditions       Soma  and  Crucibile:  Preliminary  Remarks  on  Cinnabar  as  Soma     (A   more   complete   exposition   of   this   theory   is   forthcoming   on   ChymicalPhilosophers.org)       "By  drugs  and  incantations  (chou  she)  one  can  change  bronze  into  gold.  By  skillful   use  of  chemical  substances,  silver  can  be  changed  into  gold(cid:124)By  spiritual  power  a   man  can  change  even  pottery  or  stone  in  gold"  from  “Nagaruna”  in  Indian  The   Maha-­‐Prajnaparamito-­‐padesa  Sastra  (translated  to  Chinese  in  406  AD  TA  CHIH  TU   LUN)     Alchemical  pottery  might  be  as  evasive  in  definition  as  alchemy  itself.  In  some   sense  all  technologies  born  of  fire  are  alchemical,  from  infusing  herbs  in  water  with   hot  rocks  in  gourds,  to  making  pottery,  cooking,  evolving  to  metallurgy.  Although   the  Epic  of  Gilgamesh  is  really  the  heroic  search  for  the  plant  that  conquers  death,   the  linking  of  gold,  plants  and  botanical  metaphors,  with  notions  of  immortality   might  have  arisen  in  India.  As  scholars  have  noted  of  Indian  alchemy,  if  alchemy  is   defined  by  the  use  of  mercurials  then  alchemy  in  India  is  quite  late.  But  if  it  is  a   sacred  metallurgy  of  gold  and  immortality  then  it  dates  back  to  the  Vedic  soma  cult. Some   scholars   date   the   introduction   of   alchemy   into   India   as   late   as   Muslim   conquests,   but   Needham   (1974)   and   others   have   demonstrated   that   there   was   th thriving  mercurial  alchemy  well  before  this  in  the  earliest  Tantric  texts  (to  the  4   century,  and  based  on  oral  traditions  that  go  back  to  the  earliest  metallurgical  guilds   of  the  ancient  world).       Mercury  seems  to  have  been  used  prior  to  this  in  China,  and  as  mercury  is   conspicuous  by  its  absence  in  early  Vedic  texts  (and  its  lack  of  indigenous  supply   means   it   was   imported   from   Dardistan),   it   may   well   have   been   part   of   the   metallurgical   allegories   that   accompanied   the   soma   rites.   Indian   scholars   have   suggested  that  Soma  is  a  metaphor  for  electrum  with  elegant  theories  that  refute  the   speculations   of   Wassonʼs   mushroom   hypothesis.   Cinnabar   has   been   found   at   Mohenjo-­‐daro   (SanaUllah   1931)   (quantities   unknown)   and   increasing   archeometallurgical  publications  report  that  more  is  being  found  inlayed  in  various   artifacts   (Pigott   1999).     Cinnabar   powder   (hingula)   was   also   used,   it   was   the   original  substance,  which  has  been  replaced,  for  the  bindi  or  dot  on  the  middle  of  the   forehead.  Some  of  the  earliest  literary  references  to  the  use  of  mercury  distillation   comes  from  Indian  treatises  such  as  the  Arthashastra  of  Kautilya  dating  from  the   late  first  millennium  BC  onwards  (Srinivasan  and  Ranganathan  2012).       As  Joseph  Needham  notes,  the  earliest  alchemy  in  China  took  the  form  of   creating   magical   vessels   of   alchemical   alloys.   This   evolved   into   consuming   the   metals  in  colloidal  forms  to  compounded  pills,  but  the  magical  cups  and  plates   continued  to  be  made  even  into  modern  times.  This  accords  with  the  soma  cup,  or   drone,  that  was  used  for  the  soma.  Perhaps  the  variety  of  plants  named  as  soma   were  consumed  at  various  times  in  these  cups  (wood  gilded  with  “electrum”  ),  or  in   combinations  such  as  we  speculate  in  other  writings  (forthcoming  Plant  as  Guru   from  The  Yogiʼs  Pharmacopoeia).  Both  Needham  and  Wasson  speculate  that  the   Amanita  muscaria  rite  was   one   of   the   highest   secrets   in   the   Daoist   cannon,   as   discussed   in   Thunder  Among  the  Pines  (Dannaway   2009)   in   the   context   of   the   evolving  alchemical  technologies  that  flowed  back  and  forth  from  India  to  China.   Alchemical   alloys   suddenly   burst   forth   in   Tantra,   with   doctrines,   cosmology,   technologies  fully  intact,  merely  updating  the  soma  to  amrita  and  deifying  fixed   mercury/silver  alloys.  As  we  intend  to  address  this  theory  in  depth  elsewhere,   remarks  will  be  confined  to  pottery  that  was  used  to  produce  these  mystical  alloys,   in   traditions   that   persisted   into   Arabic,   Jewish,   and   European   sources.   The   proto-­‐alchemical  mystical  metallurgy  is,  except  for  brief  poetic  allusions,  free  of   concepts  of  immortality  and  the  rejuvenative  elixirs  of  India,  China,  and  the  Arabic   and  European  heirs  to  these  traditions  (Needham  1976).       Indian  Alchemical  Pottery  (a  work  in  progress)     The  following  is  compiled  from  as  many  sources  as  possible  concerning  the   components  of  the  clay  that  were  used  in  Indian  crucibles  in  proto-­‐alchemy  or   alchemy.  Whenever  possible  details  of  intended  use,  shape  and  other  specifics  will   be  provided  or  updated  as  they  become  available.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the ingredients  with  the  given  data  on  the  heat-­‐resistant  variants  of  specifics  crucibles.     Crucibles  are  truly  ancient  in  India,  going  back  into  the  Harappa  Valley  period,  and   archeological   digs   have   unearthed   ones   of   variable   size,   curved   linear   and   linear-­‐sided  specimens.  They  are  made  of  straw-­‐tempered  clay,  coating  of  “sand  or   light  dusting  of  quartz  sand  on  inside  surface  of  at  least  some  crucibles.”       They  were  likely  poured  out  by  tipping  and  not  lifting  as  the  interior  was   stretched  too  thin  to  support  molten  metal  and  all  of  them  were  heated  from  above   sources  of  heat  “vitrifying  the  interiors  and  rims  of  the  crucibles  not  the  exteriors  or   bases.”  These  were  likely  fired  in  simple  furnaces  with  bellows  from  above.  Scholars   note  the  lack  of  standardization  as  indications  of  a  diverse  group  of  independent   artisans  and  smiths,  meaning  there  is  no  central  authority  or  control  (Miller  2005).   Scholars  speak  of  ancient  metallurgy  in  dry  archeological  language  without  the  least   indication  that  the  arts  and  techniques  of  fires  were  one  of  the  highest  and  most   sacred   rites   and   mysteries   of   the   ancient   age.   So   although   these   archeological   discussions  discuss  all  this  in  the  seemingly  mundane  context  of  jewelry,  cups  and   vessels,   and   ritual   implements,   they   must   be   seen   as   part   of   a   much   deeper   magico-­‐religious  complex  of  a  hierarchy  of  metals  and  health.  It  is  perhaps  even  the   hierarchy   of   metals   that   originated   the   India   caste   system,   with   the   Brahmins   represented  by  and  hoarding  gold  to  the  noble  metals  and  downward  to  the  base,   crude  lead  of  the  Kshurdra.       But  returning  to  the  archeologists  in  the  Mohenjo-­‐Daro  and  Harappa  sites,   the   mold   fragments   are   simple,   open   molds   with   a   sandy   clay   layer   over   a   straw-­‐tempered  clay  base.  The  copper  smelting  produced  household  goods,  as  well   as  smelting  copper  “to  create  specific  metal  alloys”  (Miller  2005).  Miller  questions   the  variations  of  finds  at  multiple  sites,  speculating  that  perhaps  the  central  Indus   Valley  people  were  more  interested  in  experimenting  with  alloys.  Scholars  hoping   for   ethnobotanical   or   metallurgical   proof   of   respective   theories   are   constantly   frustrated  by  lack  of  evidence,  except  for  incidents  of  cinnabar  here  or  samples  from   ceramics   there,   and   no   copper   ingots   are   found   in   these   excavations   so   it's                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 unknown  really  what  all  this  metallurgy  was  producing  and  how,  and  in  fact  “no   large   metal   fragments   or   objects   were   found”   in   the   trench.   This   could   be   for   efficient  recycling  of  metals,  or  that  these  were  sacred  sites  and  the  excess  metal   would  have  been  processed  alchemically  as  bhasmas  which  is  an  early  alchemical   preparation  in  India.  Scholars  discuss  this  region  as  a  simple  “copper  smelting  site”   because   early   investigators   found     “a   quantity   of   copper   ore.”   Also   found   are   alchemical   ingredients   the   world   over,   including   fragments   of   chysocolla,   chalcopyrite,  hematite,  lollingite  (arsenic  and  iron),  antimony,  cinnabar  (sulfur  of   mercury),  cerussite  (carbonate  of  lead),  galena,  unidentified  type  of  lead  ore,  and   they  reluctantly  admit,  “some  of  these  metallic  minerals  may  have  been  used  in   melting  and  alloying  processes,  but  just  as  likely  as  for  other  purposes,  e.g.  as   colorants,  medicines  and  poisons  ”(Pigott  1999).       I  submit  that  these  can  be,  for  the  medicines  and  alloys,  one  in  the  same.  As stated  above  the  oldest  metallic  alchemy  (as  distinguished  from  botanical/visionary   elixirs)   in   China   consisted   of   alloyed   metals   that   were   thought   to   imbue   their   immortal   qualities   to   the   substances   contained   inside.   They   were   processed   in   focused  operations  that  leave  little  waste  or  residue.  I  submit  that  this  itself  suggests   these  operations  are  outside  the  realm  of  pure  industry  or  artisan  craftwork,  and   the  presence  of  alchemical  ingredients,  many  of  which  will  show  up  in  ancient  China   as  they  transition  from  plant  of  immortality  to  vessel  of  immortality  to  drug  of   deathlessness.  These  are  the  very  ingredients  to  countless  elixirs  and  alchemical   alloys   that   will   persist   in   China,   merge   into   Arabian   and   Jewish   alchemy   and   translate   into   European   texts.   These   emerge   in   Paracelsus,   who   also   discusses   magical  “electrum”  of  the  ancients  that  was  made  to  detect  poisons,  ward  of  evil   and  secure  ever-­‐lasting  health.  As  this  is  the  subject  of  a  lengthy  treatment  in  Living   Waters  and  The  Volatile  and  the  Fixed,  these  comments  must  suffice.  Even  minute   quantities  of  cinnabar  would  be  quite  rare  in  India,  as  David  Gordon  White  and   others  note  it's  not  a  native  product  and  must  have  been  imported  and  brought  from   a   few   ancient   sources.   Certainly,   and   alchemically   significant,   is   the   overlay   of   cinnabar  found  on  some  shells,  in  symbolism  that  echoes  all  over  the  ancient  world.   In  some  of  the  earliest  burial  sites  in  the  regions  of  Asia  are  the  skeletons  of  the   dead  painted  with  cinnabar  linking  this  drug  with  notions  of  death,  preserving  the   bones  which  has  spiritual  dimensions  of  immortality  as  well.       There  was  obviously  botanical,  mineral  and  metallurgical  crossovers  both  of   use  in  ingesting  magical  herbs/fungi,  as  code  words/symbols  for  metals  (as  gourds   were  for  crucibles),  as  well  as  used  in  the  actual  manufacture  of  the  crucibles  (as   seen   below).   Drugs   like   triphala   were   used   in   alchemical   recipes   as   well   (Madhihassan   date).   Soma/haoma   rites   evolved,   suddenly   ceased   or   went   underground  (Zoroaster  forbid  the  haoma  in  Persia),  and  this  can  account  for  the   countless  additives,  substitutes,  etc.  as  discussed  in  Plant  As  Guru  (Dannaway  2012).   But  the  great  soma  rites  of  actual  metallurgical,  alchemical  alloying  (with  mercury,   as  demonstrated)  would  symbolically  be  represented  in  the  obligatory  daily  soma   rites  and  homa  fire  cults  that  stretched  all  over  the  ancient  Indo-­‐Iranian  world   persisting  into  fire  rituals  of  Tibet  and  the  goma  Tantric  fire  rituals  of  Japan.  Of   course   fixed   mercury   parad   is   still   a   highly   venerated   alchemical   product   for   medicine  and  worship,     (There  is  a  forthcoming  monograph  on  mercury.)       Ray   (1956)   writes   of   the   earliest   crucibles   in   Indian   metallurgy   or   proto-­‐alchemy,  “Earth  of  black,  red,  yellow  and  white  color(cid:124)burnt  husks  of  paddy,   soot,  earth  from  the  ant-­‐hill,  well-­‐burnt  excrements  of  goat  and  the  horse-­‐-­‐-­‐rust  of   iron-­‐-­‐-­‐These  are  the  ingredients  used  in  various  proportions  for  making  crucibles   (musa),  retorts,  etc.”  He  continues,  “There  are  two  kinds  of  crucibles,  viz.,  open  and   covered  (lit.  blind)-­‐-­‐-­‐  the  covered  one  resembles  the  nipple  of  a  cow  and  is  fitted   with  a  lid,  which  has  a  raised  head(cid:124)For  the  purification  of  silver,  the  crucible  is  best   made  of  two  parts  of  the  ashes  of  Schrebera  swietenioides,     and  one  part  each  of   brick  dust  and  earth.” On  the  Ingredients  for  Crucibles,  etc.  from  the  Rasaratnasamuchchaya     Book   X  (Ray  1956)     We  here  list  the  primary  ingredients,  entries  are  omitted  when  the  details   were  too  scant  to  be  worth  recalling,  or  when  there  was  significant  overlap.  For   instance,   many   of   the   size,   shapes   and   functions   are   indicated   for   the   same   processes  with  little  or  no  appreciable  differences  in  the  recipes  for  the  clay  or   dimensions.       “Earth  which  is  heavy  and  of  a  pale  color,  sugar  or  earth  from  an  ant-­‐hill,  or   earth  which  has  been  mixed  with  the  burnt  husks  of  paddy,  fibers  of  the  hemp  plant,   charcoal  and  horse-­‐dung  pounded  in  an  iron  mortar,  and  also  rust  of  iron,  are  to  be   recommended  for  crucible-­‐making.”     Vrintaka  crucible:  -­‐-­‐  A  crucible  of  the  shape  of  the  brinjal  (Solanum  melongena)  to   which  is  attached  a  tubular  end,  expanding  towards  its  mouth  like  the  flower  of   Datura  stramonium,  and  which  is  either  twelve  or  eight  digits  in  length,  is  suitable   for  the  extraction  of  the  essence  of  calamine  and  other  readily  fusible  minerals.  It  is   usually  of  6”  length  and  2”  breadth,  at  the  top  where  the  flower  stem  is,  there  is  a  4”   tube  inserted,  called  vrntaka  musa  (Dash  1986). Notes  on  Crucibles  (Mukherji  1998):     Main  ingredients  in  crucibles  are  mud  and  iron,  the  mud  is  yellow,  reddish   yellow,  touch,  devoid  of  pebbles,  and  its  capable  of  standing  fire  for  a  long  time.  In   absence  of  such  mud,  preference  is  to  be  given  to  the  mud  created  by  white  ants,  or   the  mud  used  by  potters.  An  ordinary  crucible  is  prepared  with  mud,  mixed  with   burnt  husk,  hemp  fibres,  cow  dung  or  horse  stool,  mixed  and  hammered  by  means  of   an  iron  rod.       The  mud  used  in  the  preparation  of  crucibles  is  to  contain,  in  sufficient   quantities,   white   stone   finely   powdered,   burnt   husks,   cow   dung,   hemp   fibers,   horseʼs  stool,  oxidized  iron,  and  black  mud.       Which  crucible  for  what  operation:     Calcination,  Roasting,  etc.  When  metals  have  undergone  roasting  they  cannot  be   roasted  to  their  former  condition  (i.e.  they  lose  their  own  properties)  and  they   acquire  superior  qualities.  A  quadrangular  pit,  two  cubits  in  length,  breadth  and   depth  respectively,  is  filled  with  1,000  cow-­‐dung  cakes.  The  drugs  to  be  roasted  are   placed  in  one  crucible;  this  is  covered  with  a  second  crucible,  the  rims  being  luted   with  clay  (see  below  for  luting  ingredients).  The  crucibles  are  deposited  over  the   cow-­‐dung  cakes  and  five  hundred  more  thrown  over  them:  fire  is  now  applied.   Cupels   and   crucibles   were   made   clay   mixed   with   bone-­‐ash   of   goats   and   lined   internally   with   borax.   The   crucible   is   called   Musa   because   it   helps   cardicating   blemishes  from  mineral  drugs.  Some  of  these  recipes  may  date  back  to  Nagarjuna.       From  Text  Book  of  Rasa  Sastra  (Reddy  2007)     Musa  crucible:     For  heating  in  low  (Mrdu),  moderate  (Madhya),  and  high  temperature  (Tivragni),   arose  in  development  of  rasasastra,  more  than  20  types,  usually  have  two  parts,   lower  or  basal  is  known  as  musa,  for  heating  drugs  the  lid  or  covering  is  called   (Pidhanaka).  See  section  below  for  sealing  lids,  and  luting.     Krauncika     As   Musas   are   made   usually   made   from   soil   from   Kraunca   hill   or   their   shape   resembles  bird  Kraunca,  hence  synonym  Krauncika.     Kumudi,  resembles  the  kumuda  puspa  (white  lotus)     Pacini,  from  Pacana  used  for  heating     Vahnimitra  “tolerate”  heat,  friend  of  fire  Vahni  Mitra. Musa:  Ingredients  in  making   1. Dagha  tusa  (burnt  husk)   2. Dagdha  vastra  (burnt  cloth)   3. Balmika  Mrttika  (Hillock  soil)   4. Angara  (burnt  charcoal)   5. Purana  lohakitta  (old  iron  slag)   6. Swetasma  (white  stones)   7. Dagdhagara  (burnt  clay)   8. Dagdha  Balmika  Mrttika  (Burnt  hillock  soil)   9. Dagdha  Gajamala  (burnt  elephant  dung)   10. Daghaswamala  (burnt  horse  dung)   11. Krsna  Mrttika  (Black  soil)   12. Nara  kesa  (manʼs  hair)   13. Bhunaga  satwa  (metallic  extract  of  worms)   14. Sana  (jute)   15. Kupi  curna  (glass  bottle  powder)   16. Sukti  curna  (powder  of  marine  shell)   17. Istika  curna  (brick  powder)   18. Vida  lavana  (a  type  of  salt)   19. Vajra  valli  (a  herbal  drug)   20. Jala  (water)   21. Chagi  dugdha  (goats  milk)   22. Mahisi  ksira  (buffalo  milk)   23. Bala  rasa  (sida  cardifolia  juice)   24. Matkuna  Sonita  (blood  of  bed  bugs)   25. Pasana  curna  (stone  powder)   26. Bhunagamrttika  (earth  worm  soil)   27. Rakta  mrttika  (red  soil)   28. Rajta  varga  curna  (powder  of  red  group  of  drugs)   29. Rakta  varga  rasa  (juice  of  red  group  of  drugs)     30. Tuvari  (alum)  and   31. Puspakasisa  (white  ferrous  sulphate)   Soils  for  Musa     1. Valmika  Mrttika  (Hillock  soil)   2. Kalini  Mrttika  (Black  soil)   3. Bhunaga  Mrttika  (earth  worm  soil)   4. Rakta  Mrttika  (red  soil)   5. Pita  Mrttika  (yellow  soil)   6. Sweta  Mrttika  (white  soil)     Soils  “greyish  or  blackish  in  colour,  coarse  but  without  sand  content,  greasy,  sticky   and  heavy  may  be  best  for  making  Mrttika.”     Vajra  Musa Three  parts  clay  (sandy  mud,  yellowish  white  with  big  particles),  one  part  sana,  one   part  of  horse-­‐dung,  one  part  of  ash  or  paddy  husk  and  half  part  of  mandura  (iron   rust)  all  pounded  together.  Used  for  taking  out  sattva  (essence)  of  extremely  hard   substances  like  diamond,  mentioned  in  Rasarnav,  Rasaratnakara,  R.  Cudamani,  etc.   shaped   like   the   cowʼs   breast   (Gostanakara)   round   oval.   Constituent   material,   Dagdha  Tusa,  Dagdha  Vastra,  Valmika  Mrttika,  Angara,   Purana  loha  Kitta,  white   stone,  Dagdha  gara,  Dagdha  Valmika  Mrttika,  Dagha  Gajamala,  Dagdha  Aswamala,   Krsna  Mrttika,  Narakesa,  Bhungaga  satwa,  Sana,  Glass  Bottle,  Sukti  and  Istika  curna,   Vida   lavana,   Pasana   behda   patra.   These   are   mixed   with   Bhavana   drugs,   Vajra   vallirasa,   Jala,   Ajadugdha,   Mahisi   dugdha,   Balarasa,   Matukuna   sonita.   Method   of   prepation:  All  powdered  and  added  together,  mixed  with  Tusa,  Vastra,  Kupicurna,   Sukti   curna   Narakesa,   Sana,   Vida   lavana,   pound   till   mixed   well.   Now   triturate   mixture  with  liquids  of  Bhavana  drugs  for  3  days  or  till  paste  becomes  soft,  smooth   and  sticky,  mold  into  round-­‐oval  shape,  dry  shape,  Heat  and  harden,  said  to  stand   strong  heat  for  four  yamas  12  hours  .  Dash  (1994)  writes  it  is  made  from  mud  of   ant-­‐hill  (one  part)  and  ash  of  human  hair  (one  part)  triturated  by  adding  small   amount  of  goats  milk.         Mukherji  (1998)  writes,  “A  Vajra  Musha  is  prepared  with  the  following:  three  parts   of  mud,  one  part  of  hemp  fibre,  one  part  of  cow  dung  or  horseʼs  stool,  one  part  of   burnt  husk  and  powdered  stone  combined,  and  half  a  part  of  oxidized  iron.  This   crucible  is  used  in  the  extraction  of  essences  of  metals.”     Used  in  calcination  of  mercury,  from  Dash  (1986).     Gara  Musa       Materials  Dagdha  Gara,  Loha  kitta,  Angara,  Sana,  Krsna  Mrttika,  Bhunaga  satwa,   Dagdha  Tusa,  and  Mahisiksira.         Mukherji  (1998)  made  of  “Buffaloʼs  milk,  mud  immersed  in  water  a  long  time,  and   six  times  weight  of  the  milk,  oxidized  iron,  charcoal,  jute  fibre,  and  black  soil  are  to   be  rubbed  together  and  made  into  a  crucible.       Method  of  Preparation  :  All  drugs  to  be  finely  powdered  and  triturated  with  Mahisa   Ksira  and  Jala  for  15  days  to  make  the  paste  soft  and  smooth.  Now  mold  it  like  Vajra   Musa,  dry  and  heat.  Good  for  Rasakarmas.  Can  stand  strong  heat  for  2  yama,  6  hours.   Black-­‐soil   (one   part)   and   ash   of   paddy-­‐husk   (six   parts)   should   be   mixed   with   adequate  quantities  of  mandura  (iron  rust)  sana,  etc.  and  used  for  preparation  of  the   crucible  (Dash  1986).     Vajra  Dravan  musa  (also  Vajradravanika  Musha)     Materials:   Gara,   Bhunagasatwa,   Sana,   Dagdha   Tusa,   Mahia   ksira.   Lepana   drugs, Matkunsonita,  Baldhwani  mula  Tanduliyaka  rasa.     Mukherji  (1998)  “Mud,  immersed  in  water  for  a  long  time,  soil  raised  by-­‐earth   worms,  jute  fibers,  and  burnt  husk,  each  in  equal  quanity,  and  the  mud  for  crucibles,   rubbed  with  buffaloʼs  milk,  plastered  with  a  paste  of  blood  of  bugs,  balaka,  and  the   root  of  the  tanduliyaka”  makes  a  crucible  strong  enough  to  smelt  diamonds  (vajra).       Method  of  preparation:  All  the  drugs  powder,  mixed,  triturate  them  with  for  15  days   to  make  the  paste  soft  and  smooth.  Mold  like  Vajra  musa,  etc.  when  dry,  paint  with   liquids  of  lepana  drugs  and  heat  in  strong  fire.  It  can  resist  heat  for  2-­‐4  yama,  when   full  of  material,  otherwise  only  for  2  yama  or  six  hours.     Varna  Musa  (or  Vara)     Materials:  Powdered  Rakta  Varga  drugs,  Powdered  Rakta  Mrttika  (red  soil)  without   stones.     Mukherji  (1998)  “Powdered  iron  (or  mica,  or  diamond,  or  quartz),  charcoal,  burnt   husk,  one  part  each,  mud  for  crucible̶ four  parts,  mud  immersed  in  water  a  long   time.  “     Bhavana  drugs,  Juice  of  the  Rakta  varga  drugs.       Lepana  drugs:  Tuvari  Puspakasisa     Methods  of  preparation:  Mix  the  powdered  drugs  with  Bhavana  drugs  and  triturate   well  until  paste  soft  and  smooth.  Mold  like  vajra  musa,  paint  with  lepana  drugs  and   allow  it  to  dry.  Fire  to  dry.  This  crucible  has  ordinary  heat  resistance.         Andha  Musa:  Scant  details.       Raupya  musa:  also  called  Varna  in  Mukherji  (1998).  Mukherji,  “Powdered  stone,   red  earth,  rubbed  with  the  juice  of  that  group  of  plants  called  the  rakta-­‐varga  are  to   be  made  into  a  crucible  which  is  to  be  plastered  with  catechu  and  green  sulphate  of   iron.  This  is  called  “Varna  musha”  and  Is  intensifies  color  of  red  metals.  If  plastered   with  the  shweta  varga  ,  then  this  is  called  Raupya  (elsewhere  in  this  manuscript   Swetavarga).   The   rakta-­‐varga   refer   to   red   plants,   kusumbha,   khadira,   laksha,   manjistha,  rakta  chandanam,  akshi,  vandhujiva,  karpura-­‐ganghini,  and  makshika.  The   Swetavarga  or  Shvetavarga  plants,  tagara,  kutaja,  kunda,  shveta-­‐gunja,  jinvanti,  and   root  of  white  lotus.       Materials,  white  soil  without  stones,  powder  of  Swetavarga  drugs     Lepana  drugs:  Spatial Preparation:  Mix  the  finely  powdered  drugs  and  triturate  them  with  the  decoction  of   swetavarga  drugs  till  the  paste  becomes  soft  and  smooth.  Now  mold  it  like  Vajra   musa  and  paint  it  with  lepana  drugs  and  allow  it  to  dry.     Bhasma  musa     Materials:  one  part  brick  powder  and  two  parts  of  tila  bhasma     Preparation:  Mix  all  drugs  and  triturate  these  with  water  to  make  soft  and  smooth.   Now  mold  it  like  an  ordinary  Musa  and  allow  it  to  dry.  In  the  end  heat  it  strongly  to   make  it  strong  and  heat  resistant.  Ordinary  heat.     Yoga  musa   Materials:  Dagdha  Tusa,  Dagdhangara,  Mrttika,  Valmika  mrttika  and  vida     Mukherji  (1998)  made  of  “burnt  charcoal,  burnt  husk,  mud  and  earth  of  white  ants,   mixed  with  sufficient  quantity  of  vida,  suited  to  the  requirements(cid:124)Inner  side  of   crucible  to  be  plastered  with  sufficient  quantity  of  same  vida,  mercury  heated  in  this   crucible,  becomes  more  powerful  than  before.  “     Preparation:  Mix  all  powdered  drugs  triturate  with  water.  Mold  it  to  musa  form  and   paint  with  Vida,  allow  it  to  dry  and  heat  it  strongly  make  the  same  strong  and  heat   resistant.  For  mercury  processings.  Heat  ordinary.     Prakasa  Musa   Shape,  is  like  a  sarava  (lid)  with  hole  in  the  middle,  here  Musa  and  Pidhanaka  are   joined  together  by  Sandhibandhana,  lets  Prakasa  (light)  enter  into  the  Musa  and   hence  the  name.     Method  of  preparation:  musa  and  Pidhanaka  are  made  separately  and  then  joined   together  to  make  them  musa  form.     Pakwa  Musa  shape  of  the  pot  bhanda  of  the  potmaker.     Gola   Musa,   two   round   cups,   joined   together,   for   the   potentiation   of   mercury   (rodhana  and  dravana  melting)  ordinary  heating.  Mukherji  (1998),  Gola  musha  is  a   ball-­‐shaped  crucible,  without  any  mouth.  It  is  made  to  have  the  material  that  is  to  be   subjected   to   heat   be   kept   in   the   crucible   at   the   time   of   preparation,   and   it   is   considered  an  efficient  crucible  in  terms  of  time  and  heat  loss.         Maha  musa,  shape  lower  portion  like  elbow  joint,  like  brinjal,  according  to  Rasa   Tarangini  is   round   and   flat   and   broad   mouth,   as   the  musa  is   long   and   broad.   Mukherji  (1998)  pointed  at  the  bottom,  gradually  widening,  resembles  a  big  egg   fruit  in  appearance,  use  for  extraction  of  essences  and  incineration  of  iron,  mica.