For Community TheCommunitarianAnarchismOfGustavLandauer Larry Gambone 2001 Contents Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 LandauerasAnarchist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 TheState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ViolenceandSocialChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 TheAlternativetoCapitalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 SocietyandFolkConsciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Marxism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 LandauerToday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 LandauerAndTheSocialistInternational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 LandauerAndChrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 HakimBeyontheMunichSoviet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 Biography GustavLandauerwasborninKarlsruhe,GermanyonApril71870ofbourgeoisorigin. Atavery early age he came into conflict with both his teachers and parents, but in spite of this, excelled academically. Nevertheless, he dropped out of college after studying literature, philosophy and medicine. LandauermovedtoBerlin,andforashorttimewasunderthetutelageofJohannMost. (Later, in the opposite direction, the Tolstoyan anarchist, Benedikt Friedlander became a major influence.) From 1893 to 1899, Landauer edited The Socialist, which, in spite of its name, was ananarchistjournal. Prisonwastobe hishomein1893, 1896, and1899, eachtime forcivildis- obedience. Whenheattendedthe1893CongressoftheSocialDemocraticInternational,August Bebeldenouncedhimasapoliceagent. Anattempttoenterthe1896InternationalCongressin Londonmetwithonlylimitedsuccess. (SeeAppendixformoreinformationontheCongress)At thistimehewasunderKropotkin’sinfluencebutby1900hehadshiftedtowardapositionmuch closer to Proudhon and Tolstoy, advocating passive resistance in the place of violence and looking towardthespreadofcooperativeenterprisesasthereallyconstructivewaytosocialchange.1 In 1900 Landauer also joined the literary group, Neue Gemeinschaft, where he became friends with Martin Buber and the anarchist Erich Muhsam. Two years later he married and movedtoEnglandforayear,livingnextdoortoPeterKropotkin. HewasalsofriendswithMax NettlauandthenovelistConstantinBrunner. Aboutthesametime,heeditedMeisterEckhart’s works, who along with Spinoza, had a great influence upon his thinking. Landauer became in- creasinglydisillusionedwiththeleft’ssterilityanddogmatismandbegantomovemoretoward communitarianism. TheSocialistFederationwaslaunchedin1908topromotethedevelopment ofcommunitiesandayearlaterTheSocialistbeganpublicationagain. In1911Landauerwrotehis bestknownwork,ForSocialism. TheSocialistFederationspreadthroughGermanyandSwitzer- land, with some twenty local organizations with meetings of up to 800 people. Landauer’s an- archist opponents accused him of weakening the movement by siphoning militants away from theclassstruggle. Buttheattempttocreatecommunities,freeschoolsandcooperativeswascut shortbythewar. TheSocialist ceasedpublicationearlyin1915,forobviousreasons. Althoughactiveinoppositiontothewar,Landauerconcentrateduponliterature,writingplays andstudiesofShakespeare,Hölderlin,GoetheandStrindberg. (Hewasfortunatetolivelongbe- forePCandits“DeadEuropeanWhiteMales”viciousness.) WhentheGermanRevolutionbroke outinlate1918,hewasinBavariawithhisfriendKurtEisner,whowasleadingtherevolutionary movement. ButLandauerbecamecriticalofhisEisner,wantinganoutandoutworkerscouncil republicandnotjustaleft-wingversionofsocialdemocracy. Onlytheworkerscouncilsseemed toofferhopeforbreakingwithcapitalismandthestate. Landauer joined the Bavarian Workers Council and had much support among the workers, leadingademonstrationof80,000foraworkerscouncilrepublic. Whenthecouncilstookover Munich,Landauerwasputinchargeofinformation. TheWorkers’Republicwasofbriefduration however,asaright-wingoffensiveallowedtheCommuniststotakeover. Hewasdismissedfrom hispost. TheCommunistRepublicwassooncrushedbytheproto-NaziFreikorps. Landauerwas arrested and placed in Stadelheim Prison. According to his friend Ernst Toller, “They dragged himintotheprisoncourtyard. Anofficerstruckhimintheface. Themenshouted,‘DirtyBolshie! Let’sfinishhimoff!’ Arainofblowsfromriflebuttsdescendedonhim. Theytrampledonhim 1Woodcock,407 3 untilhewasdead.”2 Hislastwordswere,“Goaheadandkillme! Bemen!” TheJunkeraristocrat ultimatelyresponsibleforthecrime,MajorBaronvonGagernwasneverbroughttotrial. While the mainstream anarchism movement, to say nothing of the left, has largely ignored Landauer’s contributions, he was not without influence. His ideas were important to the Ger- mananarchistErichMeusham,theeconomist,SilvioGesell,thephilosopher,MartinBuber,and thetheologian, EberhardArnold. HisthinkingwasimportantfortheChristiancommunitarian Bruderhoff Movement and anarchist Kibbutzim in Isreal. Unfortunately, little of his work has beentranslated,soheisnotwellknownoutsideoftheGermanspeakingworld. Landauer as Anarchist He could be seen as following directly in the footsteps of Proudhon. Like the “father of anar- chism”hewasopposedtoabstraction3andviolence,emphasizedregionalism,thecreativeforces and mutual aid. As with Proudhon, his individualism was social individualism. Or as Erich Mühsam put it, “…anarchy, the essence of which is characterized by Gustav Landauer as being socialorderfoundeduponavoluntarycontract.”4 Thisviewpointisechoedbyanotheradmirer, EberhardArnold,“…anarchymustherebeunderstoodsolelyinthesenseofanorderthatisor- ganic in its structure, an order based on free-willing associations.”5 As much could have been said of the Sage of Besancon. He was also familiar with, and appreciated Max Stirner, but as a “socialindividualist”hedidnotaccepttheStirneriteformofindividualism,feelingtheindividual “indissolvably bound” to both past and present humanity.6 Other influences included the Tol- stoyan, Benedikt Friedlander, Etienne LaBoetie and Kropotkin. Neitzsche, Goethe, Spinoza and MeisterEckhartwerealsoimportant.7 Landauer’sworldviewcanbeseenasasynthesisofthese thinkersbuiltuponafoundationofProudhonistanarchism. The State The following quote is probably the only bit of Landauer’s writiing that is fairly well known, amonganarchists,atleast. “TheStateisacondition,acertainrelationshipamonghumanbeings, a mode of behavior, we destroy it by contracting other relationships, by behaving differently towardoneandother…WearetheStateandcontinuetobetheStateuntilwehavecreatedthe institutionsthatformarealcommunity…”8 NotehowhedoesnotreifytheStatebyturningitintoanobjectaboveusandhowherefuses toturnpoliticiansintoscapegoats,“WearetheState…”Butinspiteofthisfact,deepinside,we neverreallyaccepttheState. Itisimposeduponus,andinthecontemporaryworld,atleast,by 2ibid,408 3Abstractthinking—onesizefitsall.Thusnationalismisabstractsinceitignoresregionaldifferences.Another typeisutopianism—someonedreamsupa“perfectsolution”totheworld’sproblems—unlikeProudhon’sorLan- dauer’sanarchismwhichwasrootedintheexistingpracticeofmutualaidandtheremainingaspectsofcommunity life. 4Muhsam,30 5Arnold, 6Lunn,153 7Landauer,3 8Lunn,226 4 ourselves. CommunityandStatearetwodifferententities. “TheStateisneverestablishedwithin the individual… never been voluntary… Once long ago there were communities… Today there isforce, theletter ofthelaw, andtheState.”9 Hewentfurtherthan theusualanarchistconcept oftheState,“Landauer’sstepbeyondKropotkinconsistsprimarilyinhisdirectinsightintothe natureoftheState. TheStateisnot,asKropotkinthinks,aninstitutionwhichcanbedestroyed byarevolution.”10 Theendresultofthereplacementoffreecooperationanditsconsciousness(thecommunity) bytheStateis“socialdeath.”11 Thisisveryevidenttodaywiththedestructionofcommunity,the lossofvoluntarismandsolidarity—allreplacedbystatistsystemsandlaws. Martin Buber, using Landauer’s conceptions, explains how the State “overdetermines” the amountofcoercioninasociety. People living together at a given time and in a given space are only to a certain degreecapable,oftheirownfreewill,oflivingtogetherrightly…thedegreeofinca- pacity for a voluntary right order determines the degree of legitimate compulsion. Nevertheless the de facto extent of the State always exceeds more or less — and mostly very much exceeds — the sort of State that would emerge from the degree oflegitimatecompulsion. Thisconstantdifference(whichresultsinwhatIcall“the excessiveState”)betweentheStateinprincipleandtheStateinfactisexplainedby thehistoricalcircumstancethataccumulatedpowerdoesnotabdicateexceptunder necessity. Itresistsanyadaptationtotheincreasingcapacityforvoluntaryorderso longasthisincreasefailstoexertsufficientlyvigorouspressureonthepoweraccu- mulated…“Wesee,” saysLandauer, “howsomethingdeadtoourspiritcanexercise livingpoweroverourbody.”12 ThereisonlyonewaytoovercomethepoweroftheStateaccordingtoLandauerand Buber. (ThefollowingisaparaphraseofBuber’sstatement.) “Itisthegrowthofareal organic structure, for the union of persons and families into various communities andofcommunitiesintoassociations, andnothingelse,that‘destroys’theStateby displacing it… association without sufficient and sufficiently vital communal spirit doesnotsetCommunityupintheplaceoftheState—itbearstheStateinitsown selfanditcannotresultinanythingbutState,i.e. power-politicsandexpansionism supportedbybureaucracy.”13 Violence and Social Change As we saw above, Landauer did not believe in scapegoating and demonization, nor in spread- ing hatred and envy. The real enemy was not the bourgeoisie, but the present condition of the human spirit. This condition included abstract thinking, alienation, materialism and all round submissiveness. Withoutthese,capitalismandthestatecouldnotsurvive. 9Landauer,43 10Buber,46 11Landauer,7 12Buber,47 13ibid,47–8 5 Brutalactscouldnotgiverisetoabetterworldsince“therecanonlybeamorehumanfuture if there is a more humane present.”14 Abstraction, mechanistic thinking and cold blooded logic lies at the root of the terrorist mentality, not as is commonly thought, emotionalism. “They have accustomed themselves to living with concepts, no longer with men. There are two fixed, separateclassesforthem,whostandopposedtoeachotherasenemies;theydon’tkillmen,but theconceptofexploiters,oppressors…”15 “Fromforceonecanexpectnothing,neithertheforce oftherulingclasstodaynorthatoftheso-calledrevolutionarieswhowouldperhapsattempt… throughdictatorialdecreestocommandasocialistsociety,outofnothing,intoexistence.”16 ForLandauer,Tolstoy’snon-violence“…isatthesametimeameanstoachievethisgoal,that allcoercivedominationcollapses…whentheslavesceasetoexerciseforce…”17 “Oursolutionis much more [than destruction]. First build up! In the future it will be apparent whether there stillremainssomethingthatisworthdestroying.”18 Buteventhoughheespousednon-violence, moderation,andbuildingratherthandestroying,hewasarevolutionary,asweseeinhisleader- shipintheworkerscouncilmovementinBavaria. Infact,thelifeofGustavLandauer(likethat of Proudhon) shows how superficial is the view that moderation and non-violence are always non-revolutionary. MartinBuberconsideredhimtobeafull-fledgedrevolutionary,thoughanon-violentone. LandauersaidonceofWaltWhitman,thepoetofheroicdemocracywhomhetrans- lated,that,likeProudhon(withwhominLandauer’sopinionhehadmanyspiritual affinities),Whitmanunitedtheconservativeandtherevolutionaryspirit—Individ- ualismandSocialism. ThiscanbesaidofLandauertoo. Whathehasinmindisul- timately a revolutionary conservation: a revolutionary selection of those elements worthy to be conserved and fit for the renovation of the social being. Again and again Marxists have condemned his proposals for a socialist Colony as implying a withdrawalfromtheworldofhumanexploitationandtheruthlessbattleagainstit… No reproach has ever been falser. Everything that Landauer thought and planned, saidandwrote…wassteepedinagreatbeliefinrevolutionandthewillforit…But thatlong-drawnstruggleforfreedomwhichhecallsRevolutioncanonlybearfruit when“weareseizedbythespirit,notofrevolution,butofregeneration.” “Itwillbe recognized sooner or later that, as the greatest of all socialists — Proudhon — has declared in incomparable words, albeit forgotten today, social revolution bears no resemblanceatalltopoliticalrevolution;thatalthoughitcannotcomealiveandre- main living without a good deal of the latter it is nevertheless a peaceful structure, anorganizingofnewspiritfornewspiritandnothingelse.”19 14Heydorn,148 15Lunn,136,138 16ibid,97 17Heydorn,133 18Lunn,98 19Buber,50—52 6 The Alternative to Capitalism Landauer’s concept of socialism was definitely not marxist, nor even Bakuninist collectivism, owing more to Proudhon’s mutualism. “The independent individual, who lets no one interfere inhisbusiness,forwhomthehousecommunityofthefamily,withhomeandworkplace,ishis world,theautonomouslocalcommunity,thecountryorgroupofcommunities,andsoon,ever more broadly with more comprehensive groups that have an ever smaller number of duties… thataloneissocialism.” “Thatisthetaskofsocialism,toarrangetheexchangeeconomysothat eachone…worksonlyforhimself.”20 ItmustbeemphasizedthatLandauer’sconceptofcapitalismwasalsomoreProudhonistthan Marxist. He was not opposed to exchange nor individual ownership. For Landauer capitalism wastheperversionofexchangebyprivilege—ultimatelybackedandcreatedbytheState. Fur- thermore, the spirit of this capitalism was calculating and materialist to the exclusion of every otheraspectofhumanexistence. Landauer believed that the existing socialist movement would be coopted by capitalism and theStateandthatthelong-projectedsocialistrevolutionwouldnotoccurbecauseofthisadapt- ability. HecriticizedMarx’sviewthatcooperationandsocializationautomaticallygrowsoutof capitalism,seeingitaswishfulthinking.21 AccordingtoH.J.Heydorn,Landauersawthat“cap- italistsociety,representedbytheexistingstate,adaptsmarvelouslytothechangingconditions, integratingtheproletariatthroughthedevelopmentofsociallegislationcausingittodegenerate, rather than leading to socialist society. Rather it absorbs the socialists, making their ideology superfluous.”22 One could not just take capitalism and transform it into socialism, “It has become impossi- ble to transfer… capitalism directly, into the socialist exchange economy.”23 The only way to build socialism and to not get absorbed was to work outside the State through local, voluntary organizations.24 The strength of these organizations lay in the, until then unacknowledged fact, that workers hadmorepowerasconsumersthanasworkers. Hence,hefavoredconsumerco-opsasameans toharnessthisability25 andsawthat“thecooperativesareafirststep…towardsocialism.”26 He also felt a need for credit unions, since consumer-producer associations would eventually have controlover“considerablemonetarycapital.”27 “Nothingcanpreventtheunitedconsumersfrom workingforthemselveswiththeaidofmutualcredit,frombuildingfactories,workshops,houses forthemselves,fromacquiringland;nothing—ifonlytheyhaveawillandbegin.”28 Alongwiththevoluntaryeconomicassociationswouldcomethecreationofnewcommunities. “The basic form of socialist culture is the league of communities with independent economies and exchange system. Society is a society of societies.”29 These socialist communities were to 20Landauer,126–7 21ibid,58 22Heydorn,145 23Landauer,134 24Lunn,191 25ibid,98 26Landauer,88 27ibid,133 28LandauerinBuber,55 29Landauer,125 7 becutoffasmuchaspossiblefromcapitalistrelations,30 andmostcertainlyitwastheeconomic associationsthatwouldallowthistohappen. Thedevelopmentofcommunitywasakeytoabolishingcapitalism,ashebelieved“societycan be capitalist only because the masses are without land.”31 This view, similar to that of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Spence and the Agrarians, is that a land-less people are dependent upon the capitalistsfortheirhomesandfood. Alandedpopulace,however,doesnotpayrentandgrows mostofitsownfoodandthushasagreatdealofindependence. Iftheyhavetoworkforsomeone else,itwillbemoreontheirtermsratherthanthoseoftheemployer. Thus,thepowerofcontract betweenemployerandemployeeisequalized. Theland-lesslaborer,ontheotherhand,isdriven byhungerandtheneedtopayrent,andisthereforeinapositionofinequalitywhenitcomesto makingcontractswithprospectiveemployers. Competitionworksintheinterestofthelanded worker,theabilitytoexploitisminimizedandbusinessesremainsmall,withnomorepowerthan anyoftheothereconomicactors. OneaspectofLandauer’sthinkingwouldshocktoday’sleftist,perhapsearningthisdefender of workers councils condemnation as a “right-winger.” Just what did he mean by “…the work- ers struggle in his role of producer harms the workers in their reality as customers” ?32 What he is saying is, that if a group of workers through a strike, or whatever other means, are able to push up their wages, their increased incomes will be passed on to the rest of the working class in the form of higher prices. Thus, the wage gains are a form of subsidy, paid for by the working class as a whole. This was not an uncommon belief at the time among revolutionary socialists. The point these socialists were making, was their belief that economic action was of limiteduseinliberatingtheworkers,andthatonlypoliticalactioncouldbringthisabout. Asan anti-political,Landauerofcourse,wouldnotagree. Forhim,thecreationofcommunitiesand mutualisteconomicalternativeswasasuperiorstrategytobotheconomicandpoliticalactivism. WhatbothLandauerandtherevolutionarysocialistsseemedtohavebeunawareofwaspro- ductivity. Ifwagesriseatthesamerateasproductivity,barringmonopolyoranyotherforms of government meddling, there should be no rise in prices. In fact, real prices (ie., prices ad- justed for inflation) on most items have fallen over the years, as productivity has outstripped wages. Where his concept is true however, is where wage rises are greater than productivity, orwhereindustriesareprotectedorsubsidizedbygovernment. Underthesecircumstances,the totalworkingpopulationpaysfortheincreasedincomeofaminorityofworkers. Landauerwasnotanti-work,butfeltthatfreelaborwasessentialtolife. AccordingtoEberhard Arnold, GustavLandauerexpectstofindthesalvationinwork-trueworkthatisfilled,guided, andorganizedbyabrotherlyspiritfreefromgreed;workasthedeedofhonesthands andasawitnesstotherulershipofapureandtruthfulspirit. Whatheenvisionsas the fundamental character of the future is work as an expression of the spirit, as provisionformen’sneeds,ascooperativeaction. Sidebysidewiththejoyonefeels incomradeshipandinshowingconsiderationtooneanother,man’sjoyinhiswork is to bring it about that he experiences his work as the actual fulfillment of his life 30ibid,138 31Lunn,217 32Landauer,85 8 andthusfindsjoyinliving. “;Manneedstohavejoyinwhathedoes;hissoulmust takeanactivepartinthefunctioningofhisbody.”33 Society and Folk Consciousness As he did with the State, Landauer rejected the reification of society. Society was not an ab- stractthingstandingovertheindividual,but“amultiplicityofsmallinter-relations.”34 Important amongthese“smallinter-relations”werethe“naturalunions”ortherealsocialunitsforasoci- ety without coercion. These were family, community and volk.35 “My house, my front garden, my wife and children — my world! On this feeling, on this exclusive solidarity, this voluntary union, this small and natural community, all larger organisms arise.”36 Landauer did not seek thevictoryoftheproletariatoverthecapitalistclass,butrathertheemergenceofaneworganic volk outofthecitiesintothecountrysidewheretheywouldestablishnewcommunities. What did Landauer mean by volk? Certainly not what the National Socialists meant, when they stole the term! Thus, “folk consciousness… an inner individual awareness of social ties thatdemandcooperativeactivity.” Thisfolkconsciousnessis“thegenericmemoryandhistorical essence of a people’s past ancestors embedded deeply in the common language as well as the psychic makeup of every individual formed in the cultural interaction of the group within its milieu.”37 Eachvolk ispartofhumanityandisanaturalcommunityofpeace. Thisdifferentiatesitfrom the State and from Nationalism38 or “States are natural enemies, nations are not.”39 A Volk is a culture and society growing from a region and is synonymous with nation. But, as we have seen,thisisnationinthesensethatNativeAmericansusethetermandnotofraceornationstate. Furthermore, “Every nation is anarchistic, that is, without force, the conception of nation and force are completely irreconcilable.”40 This latter statement would seem highly idealistic given thefeudingendemicamongtribalgroups,butperhapscanbeseenasanidealtype. Suchanideal conceptisnotutopian,forpeacefulnationsdoexist. Onegoodexampleofvolkandnationinthe Landauersense,andonecouldlistothers,wouldbetheAcadiancommunitiesofNewBrunswick and Nova Scotia. They have a common history, language and culture, have a large measure of self-government,buthavenodesiretocreateaStatenorfeelanyhostilityorchauvinismtoward theirnon-Acadianneighbors. InthesamewaythattheStateandnationalismcreateafalsecommunity,hethoughtinterna- tionalorganizationsandcongresseswerenothingmorethananersatzoftheworldcommunity.41 (HecertainlywouldnotlikeNATO,theWTOortheUN.) 33Arnold 34Heydorn,146 35Lunn,139 36ibid,278 37IntroductiontoLandauer,7,8 38Lunn,232 39ibid,243 40ibid,257 41Landauer,113 9 Philosophy OnecannotunderstandLandauerwithouttakingintoaccounthisJewishbackground. (SeeAp- pendix) Unlike many Jewish radicals he did not reject or deny his culture and religion and his thoughtcanbeseenasanaturaloutgrowthoftheseinfluences. “Thestoryofsalvationandthe purificationofman,covenantasBundorfederation…stem…fromtheJewishheritage.” (ForLan- dauer)“…theprophetsoftheOldTestament,withtheirrelentlesspersistence,setastandardfor alltimes.”42 “…rulebyforceisreplacedbyruleofthespiritasIsiah’sprophesyisfulfilled…the beliefthatmankindisoneinthisspirit…isalsoLandauer’sdeepestbelief.”43 Landauerhadadeepdistrustofallonesidedargumentsandreductiverationalism. Inthisman- nerhisphilosophymirroredhisowncomplexbeing—onewhowasbothGermanandJew,oras hestated,“IacceptthecomplexentitythatIam.”44 Heloveddiversityandfearedanabstract,un- differentiatedsocialistworld,preferringinsteadaformof“reconciliationindiversity.” “Mankind doesnotmeanequality;ratheritmeansthefederationofvariouspeoplesandnations.”45 Hefa- vored holism, rather than a fragmented and manichean rationalism. For him, the true socialist “thinksholistically”. “Spiritisthegraspingofthewholeinalivinguniversal.”46 AsEugeneLunn states,“Onlytheemotionallifeofthefamilyandtheactiveparticipationaffordedbylocalcom- munityinvolvementwouldensurethatone’scommitmenttonationandtohumanitywasrooted inimmediateexperienceandnottheory.”47 ForLandauer,thevalueofscience“liesnotinitsal- legedexactexplicationsofrealityassuch…scientificgeneralizationsarevalidonly astentative observations…”48 Atatimewhenfew,ifany,socialistshadanygraspofthedepthofthepsyche,Landauerwas developing his psychology. As well as our every-day rationality, there was also a pre-rational, collectiveandancientknowledgethatexistedbelowourdailyconsciousness.49 “…ifwewithdraw from conceptual thoughts and sensate appearances and sink into our most hidden depths, we participate in the whole unending world. For this world lives in us, it is our origin, that is, it is continuously working in us, otherwise we cease to be what we are. The deepest part of our individual selves is that which is most universal.”50 This inward journey was what seemed to fascinatehimmostwithmysticism,whichexplainshisstudyofMeisterEckhart. Hesawthemethodbywhichweknowtheworldwasoneofmetaphor,whichisinturnbased upon culturally determined data. Dehumanization resulted from a reified rationalism and the loss of one inner subjectivity.51 It must be emphasized that Landauer was not an irrationalist, but wished for a balance or synthesis of the rational and the deep, pre-rational contents of the psyche. To emphasize one factor over the other would give rise to one-sided (and therefore potentiallyharmful)individuals. (Asthe20th CenturywithitsHitlerandStalinwastoproveso forcefully.) 42Heydorn,138 43ibid,140 44ibid,140 45ibid,140 46Landauer,45 47Lunn,279 48IntroductiontoLandauer,5 49Heydorn144 50Lunn,132 51IntroductiontoLandauer,6 10