126 Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 “For Better or for Worse?” - the (Christian) Bible 1 and Africana Women MADIPOANE MASENYA (NGWAN’A MPHAHLELE) (UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA) ABSTRACT In her quest for the continued close connection between the Chris- tian Bible and Africana women’s realities, the author uses the folk- tale of the Rabbit and the Lion (cf. Ndebele 2007) as a background to portray the ambiguous post-apartheid South African reality. The South African context, which is the author’s social location, serves both as a point of departure and a connecting link between African women in South Africa, those on the African continent as well as women of the Africa Diaspora regarding the intersection of power, the Christian Bible and Africana women’s realities. The main ques- tion addressed by the article is: Why do Africana women continue to cling dearly to this Book that has, historically, mostly been used “for worse” in their varying interpretive contexts? The agency of these women in the interpretative processes is also highlighted. As one form of redress, a communal Africana women’s reading stra- tegy is employed to read some of the texts from the Hebrew Bible. A SOUTH AFRICA, A COMPLEX REALITY The power dynamics “visible” on the post-apartheid South African landscape are complex if not confusing, particularly if one bears in mind how the country used to be during the period of apartheid. Why? Our context seems to have the appearance of what it is not. In line with the material examined in this article, it can be argued that the Black African face of the South African cabinet may give an outside ob- server the impression that African epistemologies, philosophies and ideologies are the basic shapers /determinants of what South Africans do, be it in acade- mia (for instance, theology and biblical hermeneutics as in the present text), government, religious institutions and elsewhere. The reality though, as it will become evident, is different. An argument along the same lines may be raised regarding the situation of African-South African women. African women’s ex- periences as they relate to the Christian Bible form the gist of the contents of the present text. Although they form the majority of the South African popula- tion, their lived experiences seldom, if ever, form part of the subject matter of the biblical studies in general and biblical hermeneutics in particular. 1 This article was first, albeit with a few revisions, read as the inaugural lecture at the University of South Africa, 28 August 2008. Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 127 In my view, on account of the general marginalisation of these women’s lives her-stories, cultures, ideologies, religions, and so on) in the South African past, as well as their past and continuing close connection with the Christian Bible, South African biblical scholars can benefit by taking African women’s realities seriously. What is startling is the close connection with the Christian Bible these African women still enjoy, “for better or for worse”, despite the fact that the Bible interpretation they received via seminaries, theological faculties and religious institutions, has not always been affirming. The examination of the dynamics underlying the close connection be- tween Africana2 women and the Bible forms the main focus of this article. The reality of Africana women’s experiences will serve as a hermeneutical lens through which the close connection between them and the Bible will be exam- ined. However, before the article explores this close connection, it will exploit the folktale of “the Rabbit and the Lion” (cf. Ndebele 2007) in order to provide more flesh to the complexity of the post-apartheid South African reality. This particular folktale offers a helpful framework within which to understand the dynamics of ideology, power and Africana women’s connection with the Christian Bible. B WHO HOLDS THE ROOF OF THIS CAVE? RABBIT OR LION? In his book titled, Fine Lines from the Box: Further Thoughts about our Coun- try, Njabulo Ndebele (2007) relates the famous tale of the rabbit being caught by the lion in the act of stealing in a cave, in a chapter called The Lion and the Rabbit: Freeing the Oppressor. The lion had laid a trap for the rabbit, succeeded in catching the rabbit in the act of stealing. Lion was enraged and leaped on the poor creature, punching him. As Lion was about to devour Rabbit, the cunning little thief screamed that the cave’s roof is about to collapse. Rabbit argued that both of them could be saved if Lion, who was stronger, would prop up the ceiling with his powerful limbs, while Rabbit rushed out to get help. Lion, caught up in the sudden dan- gerous moment and instantly grateful that he had not recklessly eaten a source of vital and prompt wisdom, sprang up on his hind legs, propping up the roof of the cave with his front paws. Rabbit sprinted away, and of course never re- turned. Lion remained there in the cave, a living rafter, with his dear life in his own paws and realising with dread that he was getting tired. Doom hung over Lion as he pondered why lions were also made to be vulnerable to fatigue. He prepared to be buried alive as he finally let go of the roof. Nothing happened. His relief at being alive was only momentary as it occurred to him that rabbit had utterly fooled him (cf. Ndebele 2007:106). 2 The adjective “Africana” is used in this article to refer to African peoples or women (depending on a particular textual context) located both on the African continent and in the African Diaspora. 128 Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 Ndebele provides two possibilities for the interpretation of the tale. • Firstly, in the larger frame of entrapment and escape, the audience is presented with an unproblematic hero against an obvious powerful vic- tim who deserved what he got. Although Lion’s catch was stolen, he re- ceives less sympathy from those hearing the story on account of his in- tention to punish (even with death?) a small but clever fellow. • Secondly, another frame emerges from within the larger one, though quite subversive. The listeners are provided with a somewhat complex vulnerable victim, and a flawed brilliant hero. To their surprise the lis- teners discover that they might sympathise with the lion and have seri- ous reservations about the rabbit, the thief (Ndebele 2007:107-108). From the various analogies provided by the author (cf. 2007:108-109), two of them will be helpful in the present context. In the first instance, Ndebele argues that a perception exists that South Africa has been a cave facing inevita- ble collapse. Within such a context, it is claimed that the South African black people (lion) have been holding the cave as the white people (rabbit) have es- caped to continue comfortably with their lives (considering the painful legacies inherited from apartheid which continue to stare most black people in the face like clustered bus ranks, poorly equipped schools, the mushrooming of many informal settlements). 3 Secondly, from a gender perspective, one could agree with Ndebele’s (2007:108-109) question: “Or, have black men left black women holding up the roof?” The latter scenario reminds one of the ליח תשא (“Woman of Worth”) of Proverbs 31:10-31. She is presented as working tirelessly (Pr 31:12-27), that is, holding the roof’s cave, as her husband (Rabbit), sits at the city gates to re- ceive the glory (Pr 31:23). She holds up the roof by preparing warm clothes for her family, caring for the needy (Pr 31:20, 27) while Rabbit, her husband and children, the objects of her industry, might be having a good time elsewhere. Is the Black South African woman not indeed left to hold up the roof of the cave from collapsing, exploited and disavowed by problematic Bible interpretations, while Rabbit (the male interpreters of the texts) continue to revel in the comfort zone provided for them by patriarchy and capitalism? Or, in the case of acade- mia, is the Black woman not the one who holds the roof by foregrounding Afri- cana women-affirming biblical hermeneutics and indigenous knowledge sys- tems, while Rabbit (black men, white men and women) continue to cling so hard and so dearly to Eurocentric knowledge systems? The words of Dube (Dube 2005:193, my italics – M.M.) come to mind here: 3 An interesting new development which reveals some reversal of the racial power dynamics in our day can be seen in the mushrooming of white informal settlements. Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 129 The ideology of modern imperialism and colonialism can be crudely defined as “nothing good can come from the colonised centres and everything good comes from the colonisers’ centres”. The colonised were constructed as savages and infants and to this day they are still called “developing nations”, who need to depend on the “developed nations”. This means that the religions, theories and methods of two thirds of the world are seen as “developing”. In fact they get as- signed marginal status in the academic halls and they tend to serve as optional and less serious scholarship by virtue of their status as “developing nations”. Hence (the) culture, economic, and political structures of the so-called First World are held to be the standard that can be and should be transported to and must be acceptable and usable in all other parts of the world. But there is another story in which the Christian Bible plays a prominent role. That story not only perpetuates colonisation and Western imperialism (and apartheid, one may add), but captures the unenviable situation of African women in South Africa or the continent as a whole (cf. Mofokeng1988:34). When the white man came to our country he had the Bible and we had the land. The white man said to us ‘let us pray’. After the prayer, the white man had the land and we had the Bible. Firstly, it would not be an exaggeration to argue that the female African reality, even more than that of its male counterpart, is the one which is clearly captured by the message underlying this story. Why? Although in a patriarchal context, African women were not afforded the right to inherit the land or to have control over its produce. Nevertheless, unlike their male counterparts, they were the ones who have cultivated the lands with hard labour. These African women also worked relentlessly in the traditional African grinding spaces or granaries4 for the survival of their peoples. Hence the belief that if one strikes the woman, one is striking the rock (lwala-mortar), the source of survival, and will thus die! 4 The Northern Sotho proverb, Tšhilo le lwala re tšere le tlo šala le eja lewana is translated as: The diligent girl is now married (Ziervogel & Mokgokong 1975:1505). The phrase, tšhilo le lwala re tšere, ‘we have taken the pestle and the mortar’ formed part of the wedding song when a diligent girl was getting married. The word lwala (mortar) refers to a grinding stone and tšhilo (pestle) is a small stone that is used for grinding. These two were basic for the survival of the people because the staple food had to be ground before it could be cooked. The word lewana which refers to the un- ground maize (grits) connoted poverty as the people who fed on it were mostly poor (cf. a more or less similar situation in the context of the early Africans in America). The underlying meaning of the proverb is that once a diligent girl gets married, po- verty strikes. Similarly, her arrival in the new family marks the survival and even the wealth of that family (cf. Masenya 2004:135; cf. also Nzimande’s imbokodo biblical hermeneutics, 2005). 130 Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 Secondly, this story alludes to some of the earlier encounters of the mis- sionaries with African men in the villages, advising the former to go (with their Bibles?) and see the women (Pataki 2007). It is no wonder that even today, many churches within South Africa, on the African continent and in the midst of the Diaspora are still filled with women. In fact, one was astounded at the sight of an almost all-female church in an Afro-Caribbean context such as Ja- maica (Leo-Rhyne 2003)!5 Indeed, it is as if Africana women continue to “hold on to the roof of the cave” of Bible interpretation, theology and ministry in their own invisible way. These tenacious human beings continue to hold on to the Book “for better or for worse”, frequently in ways which are detrimental to their own wellbeing. However, the situation portrayed in the above paragraphs is not that simple. It is complicated if not confusing. Independence in South Africa in 1994 also meant the advent of a new class of black elites with a concomitant widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. In addition, Africana women’s reality, like any other woman’s reality, is varied. In view of all these observations and remarks, is it not possible to argue that African women, who are holding the roof of the cave (lion), are basically the ones who belong to the working classes, while their middle and upper middle class sisters (rabbit) are having a good time elsewhere? Who holds the roof of the cave of biblical hermeneutics in the South African context? Is there any single normative Bible interpretation? Are the powerful legitimate interpreters of the Bible for the powerless? How helpful are elitist biblical interpretations for those who are at the bottom of our communi- ties’ socio-economic ladders? If the Christian Bible itself is an elitist (lion’s?) book, and if, in addition, the received interpretations have been alienating and death-dealing in certain instances, why do Africana women continue to cling to this Book? An analysis of the power dynamics manifested in the tale of “the Rabbit and the Lion” reminds one of the Northern Sotho proverbs: Serokolwana se sennyane, se ikoketša ka go nkga: “a small herb increases itself, by means of a strong odour.” Rabbit, as s/he is mostly portrayed in African folktales, despite and/or precisely on account of her/his size, usually survives by using her/his wits and/or/ trickster strategies. Might the use of the Bible by Africana women, as outlined in the following paragraphs depict something akin of Rabbit’s sur- vivalist strategies? The racial power dynamics in South Africa as well as the tale of the lion and the rabbit constitute the socio-political location within which the relation- 5 In July of 2003, when the group which came to be known as the Pan-African Group on Religion and Poverty visited Jamaica, we were informed that Jamaica is the only country in the world with more churches per square meter than any country. Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 131 ship between the Bible and Africana women will be discussed. This particular context not only serves as a point of departure in the analysis of Africana women’s connection with the Christian Bible, but also as the main link that will connect African women in South Africa, elsewhere on the African continent and in the Diaspora. Before a connection with the Africana sisterhood is made, a brief disclo- sure about the author’s social location will be in order. After all, there is no value-free interpretation of texts - readers will always bring their biases into the act of reading. The following aspects of her social location shaped her interaction with the material in this article: • an African-South African woman biblical / Old Testament scholar • with an ecclesiastical background in which the Bible is regarded as the norm • in exile at home,6 in the academy, and in the church • an African woman whose scholarship has been heavily influenced by feminist/womanist/mujerista hermeneutic frameworks. There is therefore no value-free interpretation of texts; in addition readers will always bring their biases into the act of reading. Brueggemann (1993:9, my italics – M. M.) has captured this succinctly when he says that: We are now able to see that what has passed as objective, universal knowledge has in fact been the interested claim of the dominant voices who were able to pose their view and to gain either assent or docile acceptance from those whose interest the claim did not serve. Objectivity is in fact one more practice of ideology that presents in- terest in covert form as an established fact. In the following paragraphs, an attempt at establishing the connections in the Africana sisterhood is made. C AFRICANA REALITY: MAKING THE CONNECTIONS 1 Points of connection Three vivid instances come to mind in my attempt to connect to Africana peo- ple’s reality. 6 In terms of this foreignness in academia, Maluleke and Nadar prefer the designation, “alien fraudster” to depict the powerless state of Black South African intellectuals in a predominantly white academia. They (2007:5) argue: “They (Black intellectuals) are likened to alien fraudsters because what is available to them in the academy is not real power but fraudulent and rented power.” 132 Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 1a Elmina Castle, Cape Coast, Ghana I experienced a shocking encounter with the Bible at the infamous Elmina Cas- tle in Ghana in 2000. In an upper room I was confronted by a poster with a quote from Psalm 132:4. The gist of its message was: “God is in this place.” God can endorse slavery according to whoever posted that material. In the view of the slave masters and mistresses, the deity could sanction the dehumanisa- tion of less powerful human beings. The use of the Bible to sanction slavery, as it became evident from that poster, reminded me about how the Bible func- tioned in colonial and apartheid South Africa “for worse”, that is, for the de- humanisation of black people. Mosala (1988:4) once correctly argued: No other political or ideological system in the modern world that I know of derives itself so directly from the Bible as the ideology of Apartheid. The superiority of white people over black people, for example, is premised on the divine privileging of the Israelites over the Canaanites in the conquest texts of the Old Testament. De Gruchy (as quoted by Mofokeng 1988:36) also states that the initial opposition to missionary work among Africans in South Africa was defeated by the assurance given by the missionaries that the Bible would, contrary to the colonists’ fears, turn the indigenous people into obedient, loyal, and hard- working slaves (cf. Dube 2000: 3-15).7 Is this not the same mentality held by many men who know very well that the Bible (if used in line with their inte- rests, that is, the interests of those in power) will produce loyal, unquestioning, obedient women and girl children? There I stood in that upper room, frustrated and angry, annoyed at what the tour guide told us about the humiliation of African female bodies at Elmina. Not only were some of them subjected to sexual abuse by the slave masters,8 but also, precisely because of their biological reproductive functions, their fe- male bodies were subjected to a further gaze, to make sure that “bodies with child” would not go through the infamous “door of no return”. What kind of productivity could one expect from a pregnant slave anyway? They were likely to be a source of massive irritation to the slave masters in any case. The Elmina Castle encounter reminds one about the power play between the Christian Bible / missionary activities, dehumanising systems such as slavery, colonialism and apartheid. 1b Fort Jesus, Mombasa, Kenya 7 For a thorough analysis on the connection between Christianity (Bible), Colonisation / Imperialism and Civilisation in Africa, cf. Dube, 2000, 37-59; 1996:37-59. 8 Lartey (2008:2) says: “Throughout the slave trade period, at different times, thousands of captured slaves were chained to cannonballs at the castle, and made to stand in the blazing sun. Women, when their capturers were not raping them, could be made to lift heavy cannonballs in the blistering sun as punishment.” Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 133 The painful memories of the Elmina Castle were recalled as I stood at the ruins of a church in Fort Jesus, Mombasa, Kenya, in October, 2007. The Fort was built in 1593-1596 by the Portuguese to protect their trade route to India and their interests in East Africa. Here I was reminded of the painful marriage be- tween (Western) civilisation, Christianity and commerce, a marriage which had led to the birth of Mombasa by the violent Portuguese invaders9. Further experiences at the Martin Luther King Centre in Atlanta re- minded me of some aspects of my life in apartheid South Africa. In the fol- lowing lines, a glimpse of that North American (Africana) context is given. 1c Martin Luther King Center, Atlanta, USA Although the present example may not be directly related to the Bible, slave narratives abound on how the Bible was used by earlier Euro-American slave masters to perpetuate segregation and slavery (cf. Weems 1993: 45-46; Thurman 1949:30-31). During my visit to the Martin Luther King Museum in Atlanta (2005), I was shocked by the startling similarities between the situation of black Americans during the time of the Civil Rights Movement and African South Africans during the period of apartheid. Apart from the posters depicting the violence done to the blacks by the whites during that time, like in our black South African contexts, my attention was arrested by the signs with the word- ing “Whites Only”. The latter signpost quickly transferred my memory all the way from the US, across the Atlantic to Polokwane, formerly Pietersburg. It is in Pietersburg where, as a child, I was confronted by similar signposts. Dis- turbingly though, as a young person the signs saying “Whites Only” did not anger me then. The answer came when I grew older. Why? At that time I was extremely politically naïve and ignorant.10 9 The Portuguese were astounded at the wealth of the region. Determined to control that wealth, the sailed into the harbours of the region, demanding that the ruler of the town surrender to Portugal and start paying tribute to the king. Resistance was met with violence. The entire campaign was run under the banner of a holy (Christian) war against the Muslims, or the Moors, as they were called at the time. 10 Given my early initiation into Pentecostal theologies, with their rootedness in white conservative American missionary teachings as well as being a product of apartheid theologies, such a naivety makes sense. The separation between the sacred and the secular in these traditions meant that personal piety would get priority while engage- ment with social issues was regarded as an anomaly. Morran and Schlemmer (in Nadar (2005:70) conducted a study of predominantly White Charismatic and Pen- tecostal Churches in South Africa ten years before 1994. “They found that there had been a great exodus of people from mainline churches to the Pentecostal and Charis- matic churches, during this period. When questioned as to why they had joined these churches, a typical response was that they liked what they heard at these churches ‘there was no social gospel – it was the word of God’.” 134 Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 Having made an attempt to make the preceding connectedness between the use/abuse of the Christian Bible, African-South African women, and the African and Africana sisters, I now situate the Book within the contexts of Africana peoples. 2 The Bible in Africana contexts: A gloomy picture? The information in the paragraphs above has hopefully given the reader a glimpse of the interconnectedness between the Christian Bible and the realities of Africana peoples. However, it will be presumptuous to assume that one can write a full account of the relationship between the Bible and all Africana women’s experiences. The above overview of the resemblances among Afri- cana peoples in general and the close resemblances between African-American and African-South African women’s experiences, in particular, will enable us to throw some light on the bigger picture. Taken at face value, the above picture of the relationship between the Bible and Africana women appears to be bleak, if not utterly hopeless. It cannot but raise the following question(s): Why do Africana peoples continue to cling to the Book which has been successfully used by the powerful for, among others, their humiliation, land dispossession, racial segregation, slavery, patri- archy / kyriarchy, domination/imperialism and neo-imperialism?11 Why do Africana women continue to cling to a Book which men have been used in the past as well as in the present to perpetuate their oppression and marginalisation in the name of God? What is at stake here? Could it be, as Okure asserts, that “they [African women] are close to life at the grassroots; they see themselves in the texts of scripture, sometimes too literally and in ways that oppress rather than liberate them” (2003:74)? Surely, there must be something special if not mysterious about this Book to enable such a close connection. Or might we agree with Weems, an African-American Hebrew Bible scholar (1993:32), when she says: “Scholars must realise that something is at work here that involves more than the reader’s lack of sophistication, or a slavish dogmatic devotion to the Bible.” 11 The television screens on the African continent (and elsewhere) are repleted with preachers who proclaim a new form of what one could call a fundamentalist imperi- alist Bible interpretation. It seems as if the presenters are mostly white North Ameri- can tele-evangelists and /or a few of their African disciples. They spew out a theology which promises much, yet delivers little, in terms of material prosperity. Like the apartheid theology though, it is rooted in literalist and spiritualist readings of the Christian Bible. It is no wonder that,like state theology, it remains detached from the harsh political, social and cultural realities of its listeners. Masenya: For Better or Worse OTE 22/1 (2009), 126-150 135 Perhaps “that something at work here” is be the powerless’ unwritten strategies through which these women interact with the Book.12 Another related question is: In the transaction between the Bible, the powerful and Africana women, were the latter simply passive recipients or did some women, albeit in a small invisible way, participate in the deal without being informed by the masters’ interests and desires? If they were not influ- enced by the masters’ interests, why would these women choose to be informed by their own interests? If they had read and understood the Bible from the per- spective of the powerful, a contradiction regarding the Bible’s message of God’s love and care for them, was bound to happen. I will return to this contra- diction later on. The history / herstory of the Christian Bible in Africana peoples’ con- texts is filled with examples of how they found the same Book useful for their liberation and survival. The following examples can be listed: • the use of the Bible by African slaves in America (Thurman 1949; Raboteau 1978) in the early days of slavery; • its utilisation by black theologians and biblical scholars in the US (Cone 1969; Felder 1991; Grant & Bailey 1995); • the rise of black feminist and womanist theologies and biblical hermeneutics in the North American context (Cannon 1988; Weems 1993 in bibliography); • the origins of African theologies on the continent (Bediako 1995) Mbiti 1989); • the theologies propounded by contextual, black, liberation and African theologians in South Africa (Mofokeng 1988; Mosala & Tlhagale 1986; Mosala 1989); • the theologies of women who constitute the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians (Fabella and Oduyoye 1989; Oduyoye & Kany- oro1992; Okure2003); • the existence of many unnamed African women Bible Study groups (Phiri et al. 2002); • the numerous churches which abound on the African continent and its Diaspora. How successful the efforts mentioned in the list were and continue to be is a different matter though. What can be assumed is that the Christian Bible has 12 Maluleke and Nadar (2004:7-8) assert: “Behind most notions of agency is the basic suggestion that human beings, even the most oppressed, marginalised and seemingly destitute among them, have the potential, possibility and even ability to act as (moral) agents of transformation and change in their own lives and in the lives of others.”