Food Toxicology Food Toxicology Edited by William Helferich and Carl K. Winter CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. 2760/frame/FM Page 4 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Food toxicology / edited by William Helferich and Carl K. Winter. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-2760-1 (alk. paper) 1. Food—Toxicology. I. Helferich, William. II. Winter, Carl K. RA1258 .F665 2000 615.9′54—dc21 00-037851 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 2001 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2760-1 Library of Congress Card Number 00-037851 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 5 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM Preface At the turn of the 20th century, the average life expectancy was about 40 years of age. The main causes of death were infections due to microbial pathogens. As we enter the 21st century, the leading causes of death are now heart dis- ease and cancer. Diet plays a significant role in both of these diseases, as evi- denced by estimates that environment including diet may be related to 70% of all human cancers. By the middle of the 21st century, approximately one third of the U.S. population will be comprised of persons 65 years or older. While microbial safety will continue as a major health concern, the contribu- tion that chronic consumption of bioactive chemicals from our diet plays in the development and progression of several diseases is becoming extremely important. New data frequently indicate that antitoxicants may contribute to reductions in cancer risks and that chronic consumption of low levels of chemical carcinogens in our diet may contribute to an increased risk for developing specific types of cancers. This book provides a comprehensive look at contemporary food toxicology issues. Its nine chapters all concisely address critical subjects and are authored by leading U.S. academic experts. The highlights of each chapter are summarized below: • Food allergies and intolerance is a topic of increasing concern to consumers and food manufacturers alike. Allergic individuals must alter their lifestyles to severely limit their consumption of allergenic foods while food manufacturers must address potential cross-con- tamination in the manufacturing environment and provide appro- priate labeling of potential allergenic components in food. • Food contains a variety of chemicals that may exist as either dietary estrogens or dietary antiestrogens. The occurrence of these chem- icals in our diet is discussed as well as their potential beneficial and detrimental health effects. • Bioactive chemicals in our foods also include nonnutritive antitox- icants. The mechanisms of how such antitoxicants interact with dietary toxicants are discussed as are their ramifications in assuring safety of complex mixtures in our diet. • The food industry is the largest user of biotechnology today. While various biotechnology methods have been used in food production for several hundred years, the use of modern genetic engineering techniques is receiving considerable attention from the public, industry, and regulatory sectors. Regulatory aspects of genetically © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 6 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM modified organisms are provided and comparisons between tradi- tional breeding and genetic engineering to select desirable traits are made. The methods used in the genetic modification of foods also are discussed. • Microbial toxins that are commonly found in contaminated foods may pose acute and chronic health risks. The economic significance and widespread distribution of susceptible seafoods and the etiol- ogy of toxin production and subsequent accumulation is discussed. • Several naturally occurring plant compounds have been shown to be toxic and/or carcinogenic in animals and in humans. A com- prehensive list of bioactive compounds (detrimental and benefi- cial) produced by plants is provided. The toxic effects of such chemicals are discussed as well their potential chemopreventative mechanisms. • Pesticide residues in food have generated considerable public, sci- entific, and regulatory interest in the past 2 decades. Pesticide regulations, use patterns, and monitoring programs are discussed and the risks of dietary exposure to pesticides are evaluated. • Food additives play a major role in many food processing practices. Their history of use, classification, and regulatory systems are dis- cussed. Specific case studies of the toxicological assessment of sev- eral food additives are provided. • Central to the understanding of risks posed by various types of chemicals in food that are subject to toxicological scrutiny is our ability to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze food for such chemicals. The methods commonly used in the trace analysis of chemical toxins in food are provided as well as discussions of pitfalls and limitations related to the sample collection, prepara- tion, resolution, and detection practices. It is clear that food toxicology is a diverse topic and we believe that we have assembled a comprehensive book discussing the most critical and timely chemical food safety issues. Many of the topic areas reside on both the cutting edge of technology and in the headlines of newspapers. We wish to express our gratitude to the chapter authors for their coopera- tion and contributions and to Dr. Elisabeth Garcia and Judy Howard for their outstanding editorial and clerical contributions. We also are grateful to Lourdes Franco of CRC Press for her assistance and patience. William G. Helferich Carl K. Winter © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 7 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM Editors William G. Helferich is Associate Professor of Nutrition in the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the University of Illinois in Urbana, IL. He holds a Ph.D. in Nutrition from the University of California at Davis, a M.S. in Dairy Science from the University of Maryland, and a B.S. in Nutri- tion from Ohio State University. His research activities focus upon examining the influence of diet and dietary compounds on the growth of estrogen-dependent breast cancer. His work is widely published in the leading toxicology and nutrition journals. Carl K. Winter is Director of the FoodSafe Program and Extension Food Tox- icologist in the Department of Food Science and Technology at the University of California at Davis. He holds a Ph.D. in Agricultural and Environmental Chemistry and a B.S. in Environmental Toxicology, both from the University of California at Davis. His research and outreach work focus on chemical contamination of foods. His most recent work has concerned scientific and public policy aspects of dietary pesticide risk assessment, the influence of pesticides upon produc- tion of naturally occurring toxins, and studies of the biosynthetic pathways for the production of fumonisin mycotoxins from Fusarium moniliforme. He has authored more than 70 publications in the scientific and lay literature, gives more than 60 news media interviews annually, and has frequently been invited to provide testimony for the U.S. House of Representatives on pesti- cide/food safety matters. Most recently, Dr. Winter has expanded his outreach efforts to include musical approaches for food safety education. Thousands of each of his two food safety musical CDs — “Stayin’ Alive: A Hearty Helping of Food Follies and Science Serenades” and “Sanitized for Your Consumption: A Menu for Musical Morsels” — have been distributed throughout the world and he fre- quently tours the country giving live performances. © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 9 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM Contributors Clinton D. Allred Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Carlos E. Ayala Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Roger A. Coulombe, Jr. Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sci- ences, Programs in Toxicology and Molecular Biology, Utah State Univer- sity, Logan, Utah Tanya Louise Ditschun Department of Food Science and Technology, Uni- versity of California, Davis, California Nicki J. Engeseth Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Barbara J. Gauger Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, Univer- sity of Nebraska/Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska Sonia E. Guzman-Perez Department of Food Science, Louisiana State Uni- versity, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Susan L. Hefle Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska/Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska William G. Helferich Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Suzanne Hendrich Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State Uni- versity, Ames, Iowa Rebeca Lopez-Garcia Department of Food Science, Louisiana State Univer- sity, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Young-Hwa Ju Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Douglas L. Park Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 10 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM James N. Seiber Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering and Department of Environmental and Resource Sciences, University of Neva- da/Reno, Reno, Nevada Steve L. Taylor Food Allergy Research and Resource Program, University of Nebraska/Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska Socrates Trujillo Department of Food Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Carl K. Winter Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/FM Page 11 Monday, July 3, 2000 4:23 PM Contents 1. Food Allergies and Sensitivities Steve L. Taylor, Susan L. Hefle, and Barbara J. Gauger 2. Dietary Estrogens and Antiestrogens William G. Helferich, Clinton D. Allred, and Young-Hwa Ju 3. Nonnutrient Antitoxicants in Food Suzanne Hendrich 4. Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods Nicki J. Engeseth 5. Microbial Toxins in Foods: Algal, Fungal, and Bacterial Douglas L. Park, Carlos E. Ayala, Sonia E. Guzman-Perez, Rebeca Lopez-Garcia, and Socrates Trujillo 6. Natural Toxins and Chemopreventives in Plants Roger A. Coulombe, Jr. 7. Pesticide Residues in the Food Supply Carl K. Winter 8. Food Additives Tanya Louise Ditschun and Carl K. Winter 9. Analysis of Chemical Toxicants and Contaminants in Foods James N. Seiber © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 2760/frame/C01 Page 1 Monday, July 3, 2000 12:38 PM 1 Food Allergies and Sensitivities Steve L. Taylor, Susan L. Hefle, and Barbara J. Gauger CONTENTS Introduction Immunological Food Hypersensitivities (True Food Allergies) Mechanisms IgE-Mediated Allergic Reaction (Immediate Hypersensitivity) Exercised-Induced Allergic Reactions Cell-Mediated Reactions (Delayed Hypersensitivity) Nature and Chemistry of Food Allergens Avoidance of True Food Allergies Allergen Cross-Contact and Its Control Celiac Disease (Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathy) Nonimmunological Food Sensitivities Anaphylactoid Reactions Metabolic Food Disorders Lactose Intolerance Favism Idiosyncratic Reactions Sulfite-Induced Asthma Role of MSG in Idiosyncratic Reactions Tartrazine-Induced Asthma and Urticaria Other Food Additives in Chronic Urticaria and Asthma Summary References © 2000 by CRC Press LLC