Food Systems in an Unequal World Society, Environment, and Place Series Editors: Andrew Kirby, Janice Monk, and Paul Robbins Food Systems in an Unequal World Pesticides, Vegetables, and Agrarian Capitalism in Costa Rica Ryan E. Galt tucson The University of Arizona Press © 2014 The Arizona Board of Regents All rights reserved www.uapress.arizona.edu Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Galt, Ryan E., 1977– Food systems in an unequal world : pesticides, vegetables, and agrarian capitalism in Costa Rica / Ryan E. Galt. pages cm. — (Society, environment, and place) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978- 0- 8165- 0603- 3 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Pesticides—Health aspects—Costa Rica. 2. Pesticides—Government policy—Costa Rica. 3. Farmers—Health and hygiene—Costa Rica. 4. Farmers—Costa Rica—Social conditions. 5. Agricultural laborers—Health and hygiene—Costa Rica. 6. Agriculture—Economic aspects—Costa Rica. I. Title. SB950.3.C8G35 2014 363.738’498097286—dc23 2013034410 Manufactured in the United States of America on acid- free, archival- quality paper containing a minimum of 30% postconsumer waste and processed chlorine free. 19 18 17 16 15 14 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents List of Illustrations vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction: Pesticide Problems, Pesticide Paradoxes 3 1 Farm Households, Environmental Geography, and Agrarian Capitalism 40 2 Socioeconomic Differentiation and Geographies of Nature 67 3 An Environmental History of Agricultural Industrialization 88 4 Policing Pesticides 120 5 Regulatory Risk and the Temptations of Methamidophos 152 6 “It Just Goes to Kill Ticos” 171 Conclusion: A Green Agriculture for the Green Republic? 205 Appendix 1: Study Methodology 218 Appendix 2: Detailed Pesticide Data 229 Notes 237 Glossary of Pesticide Terms 247 References 251 Index 284 Illustrations Figures 0.1 Vegetable Pesticide Intensities by Market 12 0.2 A Farmworker Mixes a Batch of Pesticides 26 1.1 Towns and Physical Features of Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley 42 1.2 The Chayote Plant on a Trellis 46 1.3 A Potato Harvest 48 1.4 The Cloud Belt 51 2.1 Export Squash Pesticide Intensity and the Cloud Belt 73 2.2 Potato Pesticide Intensity and the Cloud Belt, Northern Cartago 75 2.3 Change in Pesticide Use in the Last Three Years 76 3.1 Land Utilization, Paraíso Area, 1951 93 3.2 Land Utilization, Cervantes and Juan Viñas Areas, 1951 94 3.3 Costa Rican Potato Yields 108 3.4 False Promises in Pesticide Advertising 109 4.1 Exporter HortaRica’s Agronomist Checks on Agrochemical Use 135 4.2 Prices of Selected Central American Vegetable Exports 138 6.1 Green Beans for National Market Being Washed in a Pesticide Mixing Tank 172 6.2 Vegetable- Borne Methamidophos Poisonings in Hong Kong 180 6.3 Levels of Methamidophos Residue in Cucumbers 189 A.1 Pesticide Use on Export Minisquash and Chayote 230 A.2 Pesticide Use on Open National Market and Export Squash 231 Tables 0.1 Pesticide Intensity by Country, 2001 6–7 0.2 Intensity of Pesticide Use on Costa Rican and Californian Vegetables 9 viii Illustrations 0.3 Per Capita Annual Fresh Produce Consumption in Costa Rica, 1991 and 2009 16–17 1.1 Characteristics of Farm Households, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 2003–2004 44 1.2 Environmental Influences on Important Pathogens of Potato and Squash, Northern Cartago 53 1.3 Country of Manufacture and Formulation for Pesticides Sold in Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley 61 2.1 Minisquash and Potato Pesticide Intensity in Relation to the Cloud Belt, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 2003–2004 74 2.2 Asset Portfolios of Minisquash and Potato Farmers 78 3.1 Percentage of Farms Selling Agricultural Goods, 1963 97 3.2 Percentage of Farms Dedicated Primarily to Certain Agricultural Goods, 1963 98 3.3 Percentage of Farms Using Pesticides, 1963 103 3.4 Pesticide Use on Various Vegetables, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 1971 and 2003 104 4.1 Pesticide Residue Violation Rates of Vegetables Tested in the US, by Country, 1996–2006 127 5.1 Insecticide Classes Used on Export Minisquash and Chayote, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 2003–2004 161 5.2 Costa Rican Pesticide Toxicity Categories, Packaging Symbols, and Color Bands 165 6.1 Pesticide Residues on Fresh Produce in Developing Countries 177–78 6.2 Cost of Insecticides per Hectare, Northern Cartago, July 2003 186 6.3 Groups of Insecticides and Fungicides Used by Market Segment, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 2003–2004 194–95 6.4 Use of Bad Actor Pesticides per Crop Cycle by Market Segment, Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, 2003–2004 196–97 A.1 Chemical Classes and Modes of Action for 122 Pesticide Active Ingredients 232–34 Acknowledgments Writing is inevitably a social endeavor—not just because it is commu- nication but also because the author is supported by a large network of people. My largest debt is to the farmers of Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley. Their interest and hospitality was truly remarkable, and I remain grateful and humbled by their generosity. I am also very thankful to the other people in the agrifood system—especially export firm man- agers and employees, produce buyers, and agrochemical salespeople— who were willing to talk to me. A number of farmers who were especially interested in my study became my guides in their communities as well as good friends: Salomón Montenegro in Buenos Aires de Pacayas, Crisanto Ramírez in Cot, Marcos Sanabria in San Martín de Santa Rosa, Reinaldo Sánchez in Cipreses, and Ignacio Segura in Calle Naranjo de El Yas. Estoy muy agradecido a ustedes por su ayuda, su tiempo, y su entusiasmo. No tengo palabras para agradecerles. Two families provided me with a home away from home in Costa Rica, for which I am extremely thankful: the Warn family in San Antonio de Desamparados and the Sánchez family of Cipreses. I also thank the Sanabria family of San Martín de Santa Rosa for their hospitality on so many occasions. I owe a large debt to my faculty mentors while I was in graduate school—Professors Karl Zimmerer, Matthew Turner, Jamie Peck, Jane Collins, and Bradford Barham—as well as to other influential professors in my education, including Jess Gilbert, Bob Reed, Dick Walker, Michael Watts, Ted Hamilton, Lisa Naughton, Doug Jackson- Smith, and the late Fred Buttel and Bill Freudenburg. As exemplary scholars, their knowl- edge and advice improved my endeavor immeasurably. Chris Duvall, Dan Mensher, Mara Goldman, Dawn Biehler, Eric Carter, Eric Compas, the University of Wisconsin–Madison Global Studies dissertators’ group, Ste- fanie Hufnagl- Eichiner, Jennifer Blesh, Rob Young, Steven Wolf, Laurie