Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete Follow the Light: Lumen Gloriae and Visio Dei in the Works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete Sigue la luz: Lumen gloriae y visio Dei en las obras de Dante Alighieri y Marguerite dicta Porete1 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona [email protected] Recibido: 10/10/2014 Aprobado: 12/11/2014 Abstract: In this article we compare the language of light used by Dante Alighieri with the one used by his “heretical” contemporary Marguerite dicta Porete (†1310) to express the final contact- vision of God. We will analyze both authors’ use of the images of light, of the gradual ascent and of the knot, placing their books in the context of the theological doctrines concerning the visio Dei in the 14th century. This will allow us to posit the authors’ shared eschatological background based on the conception of God as a visible being who radiates his love and knowledge through the created universe. In conclusion, we will discuss the visual and narrative strategies these authors employed in order to express a relationship with the divine, focusing on the historical heterodox implications of the Commedia and the Mirouer. Key Words: Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, Marguerite Porete, Mirouer des simples ames, medieval eschatology, lumen gloriae. Resumen: En este artículo comparamos el lenguaje de la luz utlizado por Dante Alighieri con aquel de su contemporánea Marguerite dicta Porete (†1310) para expresar la visión final de Dios. Para ello, analizaremos el uso que ambos hacen del imaginario lumínico, del ascenso graduado y del nudo, poniendo sus obras en el contexto de las discusiones teológicas sobre la visio Dei en el siglo XIV. Esto nos permitiráreivindicar un transfondo escatológico compartido, basado en la percepción de Dios como ser visible cuyo amor-conocimiento se irradia por todo el universo. Como conclusión, reflexionaremos sobre las estrategias visuales y narrativas que ambos autores utilizan para abordar su visión directa de lo divino y discutiremos las implicaciones que las mismas representan en relación a la posible consideración de sus textos como heterodoxos. 1 This article constitutes an updated version and an English translation of a previous published work (Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, “Lumen Dantis et Lumen Margaretae: el imaginario compartido de Dante Alighieri y Marguerite dicta Porete”, in Tenzone, 11, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 2011), which was, at the same time, a reorganization of the materials and analysis contained in the Fourth chapter of my PhD thesis, Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Poética de la visibilidad del Mirouer des simples ames, PhD diss., Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2009, published in the TDX database (http://hdl.handle.net/10803/7448). These works are framed in the activity of the Bibliotheca Mystica et Philosphica Alois M. Haas Research Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2009GR1551). In these pages we will use the following abreviations: DS = M. VILLER et al, Dictionnaire de Spiritualité ascétique et mistique. Doctrine et Histoire, Paris, Beauchesne, 1937, quoted as DS, s. v. «article», column/s. ED = U. BOSCO (ed.), Enciclopedia dantesca, Roma, Instituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1971. Mirouer = R. GUARNIERI (ed.), Marguerite Porete, Le mirouer des simples ames, Turnholt, Brepols, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis LXIX, 1986, quoted as Mirouer, chapter (Roman numerals), page/s: line/s. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 51 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete Palabras Clave: Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, Marguerite Porete, Mirouer des simples ames, escatología medieval, lumen gloriae. Sumario: 1. Introduction. Dante’s Paradise and its mirrors. 2. Face, light and visio Dei. 3. Liquid light in the Empyrean. 4. The knot of love and the Farnearness (Loingprés). 5. Conclusions. Sources and Bibliography. * * * 1. Introduction. Dante’s Paradise and its mirrors As we know, Dante Alighieri’s Commedia constructs its own universe through a perceptive narrative that is mainly based in the visual2. The clearest historical signs of this are the professional pictorial interpretations which we find in the illustrated medieval manuscripts of the Florentine’s main work. For instance, if we take a look at the classical catalog provided by Brieger, Meiss and Singleton3, we can confirm the Commedia’s visibility: highly defined in Inferno, moderated in Purgatorio and very blurry in Paradiso. In J. Pope-Henessy’s words regarding the beautiful codex illuminated by Giovanni di Paolo4: «The Paradise by its very nature was more resistant to illustration than the other Cantiche and was indeed less often illustrated. Whereas the episodes in the Inferno and Purgatory are concrete and strongly visual, the encounters in Paradise are veiled in mystery». In fact, drawing the eight angelic-planetary heavens did not present a problem at all for the medieval illuminators: there the author continues showing us a series of dialogical meetings with different characters, but when he passes the ninth heaven, the Primum mobile, what Dante sees becomes more and more problematic. As we know, after that he finds the Empyrean and there the objects of perception are intangible, full of light and doctrinally risky. A quick look at the graphic tradition of the Commedia confirms this5. In the following pages we want to examine the visual implications in the last four canti of the Paradise. We propose to do this through analysis of the iconography used by Dante and through comparison with other works whose 2 Charles S. SINGLETON, «The irreductible Vision», in Peter H. Brieger, Millard Meiss y Charles S. SINGLETON, Illuminated Manuscripts of the Divine Comedy, 2 vols., London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969, pp. 1-29. For the light in Dante’s Paradise, see ADA Ruschioni, Dante e la poetica della luce, Novara, Interlinea, 2005. For visual perception in the Commedia, see Patrick BOYDE, Perception and Passion in Dante’s Comedy, Cambridge, Cambidge University Press, 1993, pp. 61-92. About the sight and its relationship with the understanding in Paradise (specifically, for Paradise X), see Peter DRONKE, Dante e le tradizione latine medioevali, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1990, pp. 131ss. 3 Peter H. BRIEGER, Millard MEISS y Charles S. SINGLETON, op. cit., pp. 209-239. 4 John POPE-HENESSY, Paradiso. The Illuminations to Dante’s Divine Comedy by Giovanni di Paolo, London, Thames and Hudson, 1993, p. 17. 5 We find a significant example of this in the series of drawings of each canto of the Commedia by S. Boticcelli: in them the representation of canti XXXI and XXXIII does not exist and for canto XXXII he just draws Dante and Beatrice in the middle of a white void. See the drawings in Hein-ThomasALTCAPPENBERG (ed.), Sandro Botticelli. The Drawings for Dante’s Divine Comedy, exh. cat., London, Royal Academy of Arts, 2000. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 52 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete historicity, doctrine and forms or protocols of visuality are similar. We will focus our efforts, especially, on the coincidences with a forbidden and heretical treatise: the Mirouer des simples ames, written by Marguerite dicta Porete (†1310)6. We are not interested in relating these texts as sources, but as different parts of a collective imaginary tradition or, in other words, as examples of a specific visual culture7. Before starting our analysis, we should ask ourselves if the historical contemporaneity of the texts and the visual coincidences between them are enough to prompt a comparative study between Dante and Marguerite. First of all, we have to understand that from their own perspective both texts are depicting an itinerary of perfection, which is typical of the period in which both the Commedia and the Mirouer were composed. Graphically they are configured in a parallel way, with the light-knowledge-love synthesis providing the essential element for expressing the “approach” of the Soul to the divinity. In fact, both works express the evolution from an earthly life, a life of sin, to a heavenly beatitude, using a spatial imagery based on light8. In Marguerite’s case, we could represent her way as follows9: Fig. 1.Diagram of the seven degrees/stages of being described in the Mirouer. 6 For a revision of all the historiographical elements related with Marguerite’s case an essential text is L. FIELD, The beguine, the Angel and the Inquisitor, Notre-Dame, University of Notre- Dame Press, 2012. The most accurate bibliography about this author is Zan KOCHER (ed.), on the website of the Marguerite Porete International Society, www.margueriteporete.net. 7 Jeffrey F.HAMBURGER, The Visual and the Visionary, New York, Zone Books, 1998, p. 28. 8 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, op. cit., pp. 255-293. 9 We wish to thank Lara Gonzalo for the drawing of this electronic diagram. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 53 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete As we can observe, Marguerite outlines a schema with two poles connected by a gradual structure which culminates in a seventh stage, where Paradise may be found10. From this summit the Divinity spreads its light though the other levels: the description and effects of this divine light depend on the level from which the Soul perceives it11. As we will show in the following pages, a problematic highlight on this itinerary is the Sixth Stage, in which the Soul receives a flash of lightning, called the Loingprés (Farnearness), as a foretaste of Paradise. We will compare this lightning with the final flash which Dante perceives in the closing verses of his third cantica. It is important to assert an idea that we will verify in these pages: both authors use elements of space in keeping with a series of shared cultural pre-conceptions, which we can synthesize in the image of the viator who goes in via on a pilgrimage to return in patria12. However, we should initially ask ourselves if the complexity of Dante’s journey can be compared with the subverted scala virtutum which the Mirouer presents. In a beautiful study, Singleton provides us with a key for comparing both itineraries13: we should read the Commedia in the allegorical sense, because by doing that we can understand Dante’s pilgrimage as the conversion of an individual Soul, from the point of view of that Soul’s vileness (Inferno) leading to its perfection in God (Paradiso). The Florentine is presenting an eschatology in the literal sense and narrating an individual and inner itinerary through to perfection. As Singleton asserts, we have to understand the words of Dante as a «conversio animae de luctu et miseria peccatu ad statum gratiae». He writes14: Al suo tempo, ormai, secoli de meditazione avevano determinato quale avrebbe dovuto essere nella sua essenza il percorso di un viaggio a Dio, che si compia nell’anima e in questa vita. Non è il poeta che formula tale concezione: egli vi aderisce, piuttosto, perché è qualcosa di cosí saldamente fissato al fondo de la mente del suo lettore, che senza dubbio alcuno, egli —come poeta— potrà farvi apello: in tal modo, dallo svolgimento del viaggio letterale attraverso la vita dell’oltretomba, può gradatamente emergere la figura familiare del viaggio dell’anima. L’allegoria di Dante, si attua sempre nel modo di un’evocazione: richiama alla mente ciò che è familiare. Il lettore ha senzacione di star riconoscendo qualcosa che gli era noto, fintantoché tutto uno schema di significato non abbia preso completamente forma. 10 For a complete study of the imagery of the ladder in Marguerite’s book, see Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, op. cit, pp. 72-89. 11 Ib., pp. 259-293. 12 See Wolfgang HARMS, Homo viator in Bivio. Studien zur Bildlichkeit des Weges, München, Wilhem Fink, 1970. 13 Charles S. SINGLETON, ch. cit., pp. 17-67. 14 Ib., p. 24. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 54 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete Singleton talks here about the shared cultural background, which would have been recognized implicitly by the historical audience. In this sense, the essential image for expressing Dante’s ascension to God is the heavenly ladder. Christian Heck, the major scholar on this spatial image, has suggested two essential typologies15: on the one hand, there is the spiritual ladder («échelle spirituelle») and, on the other, the eschatological ladder («echélle eschatologique»). At first glance, this opposition seems to encapsulate the contrast between Dante’s itinerary and Marguerite’s ladder, but as Heck emphasizes, the opposition is never categorical in medieval texts16. One of the typologies would seem to prevail in each particular case, but there is a basic and strong symbolic sense which runs through both: the macro-microcosmic meanings are interchangeable. In this sense, the Hell-Paradise polarity is present in Marguerite’s ladder (as we will verify soon) and we can also read the Commedia as the process of perfection of the individual Soul. We will now analyze the climax of the eschatological perfection in both texts, the visio Dei, following the steps proposed by Dante in his last four canti. 2. Face and light in the visio Dei Let’s start our imaginary pilgrimage in Paradiso, the 28th canto17, the heaven of the Primum mobile. Dante is still being guided by Beatrice and both look together into the Empyrean, the place traditionally inhabited by God, where they see the following (Pd XXVIII: 16-36): un punto vidi che raggiaba lume acuto sì, che ‘l viso ch’elli affocca chiuder conviensi per lo forte acume; [... ] distante intorno al punto un cerchio d’igne si girava sì ratto, ch’avria vinto quel moto che più tosto el mundo cigne : e questo era d’un altro circumcinto, e quel dal terzo, e ‘l terzo poi dal quarto, dal quinto il quarto, e poi dal sesto il quinto. Sopra seguiva il settimo sì sparto Già di larghezza, che ‘l messo di Iuno intero a contenerlo sarebbe arto: così l’ottavo e ‘l novo; e ciascheduno più tardo si movea, secondo ch’era 15 Christian HECK, L’échelle céleste.Une histoire de la quête du ciel, Paris, Flammarion, 1999, p. 14. 16 Ib., p. 24. 17 We will quote the text of the Commedia using Dante Alighieri, Commedia, Anna Maria CHIAVACCI LEONARDI (com.), Bologna, Zanichelli, 2001, abbreviating from now on If = Inferno; Pg = Purgatorio and Pd = Paradiso, followed by the number of the canto (Roman numerals) and verse (Arabic numerals). Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 55 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete in numero distante più dal uno: [...] Since they are still at the border of the Empyrean, this fragment describes the vision of God from afar following the neoplatonic conception of the angelic hierarchies and the light-love diffused from the origin of the universe18: God is at the center of a series of larger circles (in the text he is described as an irradiating point of light, «un punto... che raggiaba lume») and he is surrounded by nine choirs spinning around the Divinity, just as medieval tradition used to imagine them19. As the velocity of the angels depends on their distance from the central holy point, the innermost circle spins the fastest and the external the slowest. Let’s check how this figure is represented in a manuscript from the 14th century, reproduced in color in the book by Rusconi and in black and white by Brieger, Meiss and Singleton20: Fig. 2. ANONYMOUS MINIATURIST, Paradiso XXVIII. 14th century. Venezia, Biblioteca Nazionale Marziana, Ms. It. IX.276, f. 73r. Image taken from Roberto RUSCONI, Pagine di Dante: le edizioni de la Divina Commedia dal torchio al computer, exh. cat., Perugia, 1989, p. 88. 18 For the use of the platonic light in the Commedia, see ED, s. v. «luce», pp. 298-299: «Tutta la rappresentazione luministica delParadiso implica infatti l’idea di Dio-sole che irraggia di sé il universo come amore e lo muove». 19 Barbara BRUDERER EICHBERG, Les neuf choeurs angéliques. Origine et evolution du thême dans l’art du Moyen Âge, Poitiers, Centre d’études supérieures de civilisation médiévale, 1998. 20 See Roberto RUSCONI, Pagine di Dante: le edizioni de la Divina Commedia dal torchio al computer, exh. cat., Perugia, 1989, p. 88. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 56 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete In the blue-colored stripe at the bottom (which represents the Primum mobile, the ninth heaven) Beatrice points out to Dante what is described in the quoted verses. From a modern perspective, the most striking detail in this illustration is that the “point of light” has metamorphosed into the face of Christ, even though in the text (at least in this canto) there is not a single allusion to a human likeness. If we take a brief detour to consider the Commedia’s illuminated manuscripts, however, we see that this is not a mere one-off or extravagant interpretation by this specific miniaturist, but a codified form which interprets this passage in keeping with a cultural context that was implicitly understood21. From the perspective of the text, the fact that the point was graphically identified with a face could be based on an assertion by Beatrice about the nature of the angels in the next canto, the 29th: «Queste sustanze [the angels], poi che fur gioconde/ de la faccia di Dio, non volser viso/ da essa, da cui nulla si nasconde»22, in which the angels are described as those who look upon the face of God and never avert their eyes from him. On the other hand, from the point of view of the Christian tradition, the son of God is the only way to perceive him through the corporeal senses: Christ is the visible God and that is the reason the angels in this illustration can be seen surrounding his face. They dwell in the nine concentric circles which represent the angelic and planetary hierarchy and they move in an eternal circular motion around God, who is an immobile point of light. The red coloring, toned down as it draws away from the center, represents the ardour of love which gives motion to the circles and the entire universe. The seraphs, the nearest angelic hierarchy to God, should be in the darkest circle, since they move faster, receiving more directly his love-knowledge. On the other hand, we cannot observe here any trace of the acute light which caused Dante and Beatrice to close their eyes: the illustration is focused on the point-face, on showing an imprecise hierarchy of the circles and on the movement of the angels. If we want to observe a different representation of this passage, we should turn to the famous Yates-Thompson codex, in which the point is represented in a very different way23: First of all, we need to discuss J. Pope-Henessy’s identification of the luminous face in this illustration with the allusion to the god of the north wind Boreas that we find in the same 28th canto24. On the one hand, Boreas is part of a complex metaphor in which Beatrice’s answer to Dante’s question is compared with the wind clearing the sky of mist, allowing the viewer to contemplate its/her full beauty. It is true that this manuscript translates the visual metaphors literally 21 Peter H. BRIEGER, Millard MEISS and Charles S. SINGLETON, op. cit., p.84. 22 Pd XXIX, 76-77. 23 The «Yates-Thompson Codex» (British Library, London, MS Yates-Thompson 36) is a manuscript from the 15th century illuminated by Giovanni Di Paolo, which was commissioned as a gift for Alfonso de Aragón, king of Naples. From the visual representation point of view it is very important, because it gives the greatest importance to the light-related phenomena described in the Commedia, trying to solve each one of them visually. For an introduction to this manuscript, see John POPE-HENESSY, op. cit., pp. 7ss. 24 Ib., comments to f. 179r. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 57 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete into graphic form, but this specific illustration also contains characteristics which could be interpreted in a completely different way. Without a doubt, our main argument is the iconographic canon which fixes the details of each canto at a very early stage25. Despite not having the face of Christ depicted here as in the previous illustration, we can verify that the face of Christ is nevertheless represented canonically as the point of light. Assuming that it is coherent with Dante’s text and other illustrations of this passage, then we may also assert that the yellow circle surrounding the face should represent the angelic choirs surrounding the divine light. Fig. 3. GIOVANNI DI PAOLO, Paradiso XXVIII. 15th century. London, British Library, MS Yates-Thompson 36, f .179r. Image taken from John POPE-HENESSY, Paradiso.The Illuminations to Dante’s Divine Comedy by Giovanni di Paolo, London, Thames and Hudson, 1990, f. 179r. If we accept this hypothesis it will be fruitful to compare this image with the previous one. In the first place, we can verify that the color degradation of the circle is immediately apparent in both manuscripts. This points to the presence of both the angelic hierarchy and the fire of God’s love: the only difference is that this illuminator is less interested than the other in placing emphasis on the borders that separate the levels. In the second place, we can observe that this miniaturist has taken into account the code of the irradiation: the Divinity expresses his love in the form of light and knowledge to the angels and this act is represented here with the golden lines gushing from the center. The closer a Soul or an angel is to the center, the more love they will receive from the Divinity26. These are examples of artistic versions, that is to say specific visual translations, of the vision of the Pseudo-Dionysian heavenly hierarchies as Dante read them27. However, what is interesting to us is, firstly, the visible status given 25 See, Peter H. BRIEGER, Millard MEISS y Charles S. SINGLETON, op. cit., p. 84. 26 Pd XXVIII: 100-102. 27 Diego SBACCHI,La presenza di Dionigi Aeropagita nel Paradiso di Dante, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 2006. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 58 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete to the Divinity through the language of light and, secondly, the visual conception of this light as expanding from the divine. As we can corroborate in the verses by Dante, the vision of God that the angels have consists only of his face, and this is what we find represented in the illustrations28. On the other hand, we should observe that in the main biblical source for the use of the face in the representation of the visio Dei there is an opposition between nunc and tunc29: Dante’s vision-poem is located, precisely, in the tunc, because he is seeing God (as a face) as the blessed after death. One of the illustrations of the Omne Bonum demonstrates that such visions were considered orthodox ones30: Fig. 4. ANONYMOUS MINIATURIST, Illustration of the Papal Bull Benedictus Deus. 14th century. London, British Library, Royal MS 6 EIV, f. 16r. Image taken from Lucy F. SANDLER, Omne Bonum. A Fourteenth-Century Encyclopedia of Universal . Knowledge, 2 vols., London, Harvey Miller Publishers, 1996, fig.115 28 For instance, see Peter H. BRIEGER, Millard MEISS and Charles S. SINGLETON, op. cit., pp. 504, 512, 517 and 519. 29 I Cor, 13, 12. 30The best work about this medieval summa is Lucy FREEMAN SANDLER, Omne Bonum. A Fourteenth-Century Encyclopedia of Universal Knowledge, 2 vols., London, Harvey Miller Publishers, 1996. For an introduction, see Jeffrey F. HAMBURGUER, The Rothschild Canticles. Art and Mysticism in Flanders and the Rhineland c. 1300, New Haven-London, Yale University Press, 1990, p. 136. Also seethe comments in Lucy FREEMAN SANDLER, op. cit., pp. 94 and 127. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 59 Pablo GARCÍA ACOSTA, Follow the Light: Lumen gloriae and visio Dei in the works of Dante Alighieri and Marguerite dicta Porete This miniature illustrates the papal bull Benedictus Deus enacted in 1336 by Benedict XII31, in which the Pope fought the controversial opinion of his predecessor, John XXII, who had asserted that before the Final Judgment not a single Soul could see God32. If we consult the bull we find it expressing strong opposition: not only the angels, but the saints and the blessed men, are capable of seeing God without any mediation from their death until the end of the times33. We can explain this miniature not only with reference to the text of the bull, but by considering the role of light in the Commedia as explained by Singleton and also by following a classification by Thomas Aquinas about the perception of the divine light34. This last author presents and describes to us three kinds of light: «lumen gloriae», «lumen fidei» and «lumen naturale». Let’s check whether we can correlate these three categories of light with the Omne Bonum miniature. At the upper level we see the face of God surrounded by angels and just one blessed soul. This strip represents the visio Dei, the essential vision of God which occurs post-mortem. From the divine face emanates light which we can divide into two kinds: on the one hand, the light which is surrounding the head in the form of golden flames and, on the other, the orange and white lines. We can also observe that the entire eschatological-representative conception coincides with the aforementioned vision from the Commedia. In the central section, we can identify Benedict of Nursia and the Apostle Paul as examples of the holy souls which the Benedictus Deus asserts have seen, are seeing, and will see the beatific vision. They are represented in a separate strip because of the different status which is conferred to them in the papal bull. 31 Christian TROTTMANN, La vision béatifique des disputes scholastiques á sa définition par Benoît XII, Roma, École française de Rome, 1995, p. 804. 32 Ib., p. 432. 33 This papal bull contains the following: «[...] animae sanctorum omnium [...] et aliorum fidelium defunctorum post sacrum ab eis Christi baptisma susceptum [...], ac post domini Iesu Christi passionem et mortem viderunt et vident divinam essentiam visione intuitiva et etiam faciali, nulla mediante creatura in ratione obiecti visi se habente, sed divina essentia inmediate se nude, clare et aperte eis ostende, quodque sic videntes eadem divina essentia perfruuntur, necnon quod ex tali visione et fruitione eorum animae, qui ia decesserunt, sunt vere beatae et habent vitam et requiem aeternam, et etiam animae illorum, qui postea decedent, eandem divinam essentiam videbunt ipsaque perfruentur ante iudicium generale, [...]», quoted in Josep GIL, La benaurança del cel y l’ordre establert. Aproximació a l’escatologia de la Benedictus Deus, Barcelona, Facultat de Teología de la Universitat de Barcelona/Herder, 1987, pp. 37-38. 34 Singleton’s approach is to read the three guides of Dante (Virgilio, Beatrice and Bernardo) as if they represented an orthodox perspective on the three degrees of vision of the divine (corresponding to the three degrees of light). He interprets this with the following Thomas of Aquinus text: «Est enim quaedam visio ad quam sufficit lumen naturale intellectus, sicut est contemplatio invisibilium per principia rationis: et in hac contemplatione ponebant philosophi summam felicitatem hominis. Est iterum quaedam contemplatio ad quam elevatur homo per lumen fidei sufficiens, sicum sanctorum in via. Est enim quaedam beatorum in patria ad quam elevatur intellectus per lumen gloriae, videns Deus per essentiam, inquantum est objectum beatitudinis; et hoc plene et perfecte non est nisi in patria; sed quandoque ad ipsam raptim elevatur aliquis etiam existens in hac mortali vita; sicut fuit in raptu Pauli» (Commentary on IsaiahI). Also see Christian TROTTMAN, op. cit., pp. 283-336 and DS, s. v. «lumiere»: 1166- 1167. Eikón Imago 6 (2014 / 2) ISSN-e 2254-8718 60