In Louis Liu & Lauren Eby (eds.), The Proceedings of the 22nd North American Conference of Chinese Linguistics (NACCLS-22) and the 18th Annual Meeting of the International Association of Chinese Linguistics (IACL-18). Distributed by NACCL Proceedings Online, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 2011. http://chinalinks.osu.edu/naccl/naccl-22/NACCL-22_Proceedings.htm Focus and Archaic Chinese Word Order Edith Aldridge University of Washington This paper challenges a widely held assumption that the existence of constructions in Archaic Chinese in which an object appeared in preverbal position provides evidence that Pre-Archaic Chinese had OV basic word order. I argue that the preverbal objects in questions – wh-phrases and focused NPs – could not have been base-generated in their surface positions but rather must be analyzed as having undergone syntactic movement. I further show that the trigger for this movement was focus. 1. INTRODUCTION This paper analyzes two constructions employing preverbal objects in Archaic Chinese and proposes that the object in both cases achieves its position through syntactic focus movement. In arguing that the OV order seen in these constructions is a derived order, this paper also contributes to the debate on Archaic Chinese basic word order by challenging an assumption in the field that preverbal object positioning in these constructions constitutes evidence for basic OV order. Although texts show the language to have predominately SVO word order, there are some contexts in which the object appeared in preverbal position. One such case was when the object was a wh-phrase. In the examples in (1), non-interrogative objects appear post-verbally, while wh-words precede the verb.1 (1) a. 天下 之 父 歸 之， Tianxia zhi fu gui zhi world Gen father settle here 其 子 焉 往？ (Mencius 7) 1 Unless otherwise indicated, all examples are taken from Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BCE) texts. ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE qi zi yan [ wang t ]? VP yan 3.Gen son where go ‘If the fathers of the world settled here, where would their sons go?’ b. 吾 誰 欺? 欺 天 乎？ Wu shei [ qi t ]? Qi tian hu? VP shei I who deceive deceive Heaven Q ‘Who do I deceive? Do I deceive Heaven?’ (Analects 9) Another context in which OV order can be observed is the fronting of pronominal objects in the context of negation. (2a) shows that pronominal objects remain in their base positions when negation is not present. (2b) shows fronting of the object to a position following the negative quantifier mo. (2) a. 夫 人 幼 而 學 之， Fu ren you er xue zhi, Dem person young Conj study 3.Obj 壯 而 欲 行 之。 zhuang er yu xing zhi. mature Conj want do 3.Obj ‘When a person is young, he studies this. When he matures, he wants to put it to practice.’ (Mencius 2) b. 吾 先 君 亦 莫 之 行 也。 (Mencius 5) Wu xian jun yi mo zhi xing ye. 1 former lord also none 3.Obj do Decl ‘None of our former lords did this either.’ The preverbal positioning of the objects in examples like (1) and (2) have prompted Wang (1958), Feng (1996), Xu (2006), and many others to suggest that the unmarked position for pronominal objects in Archaic or pre-Archaic Chinese may have been preverbal, while full NP objects remained in post-verbal position. The validity of this position is challenged, however, by the fact that object fronting was not limited to pronouns. (3) shows that full NPs could also occur in post-verbal (3a) or pre-verbal (3b) position. 2 2 For reasons which are not yet well understood, NP-fronting was more common with yi ‘use’ than with other verbs. In this paper, I tentatively assume yi to be a light verb heading a functional projection on the clausal spine. Detailed analysis of the position and function of YI is the subject of future research. See Zou (1993), Sybesma (1999), Whitman (2000), Whitman & Paul (2005), and others for similar treatment of modern Mandarin ba, whose functions overlap in significant ways with Archaic Chinese YI. 2 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE (3) a. 所 謂 大 臣 者， 以 道 事 君。 (Analects 11) Suo wei da chen zhe, yi dao shi jun. Rel call great minister Det use Way serve lord ‘One who is referred to as a great minister serves his lord according to the Way.’ b. 弓 以 招 士， 皮 冠 以 招 虞人。 gong yi zhao shi, pi guan yi zhao yuren. bow use call gentleman leather cap use call gamekeeper ‘(He) summoned a gentleman in his employ by use of a bow, and the gamekeeper by use of a leather cap.’ (Zuozhuan, Zhao 20) Returning to the debate regarding basic word order in Archaic Chinese, Li & Thompson (1974), Wang (1958), La Polla (1994), Feng (1996), Xu (2006), and others view pre- verbal objects in (1)-(3) as vestiges of basic OV order in pre-Archaic Chinese, while Djamouri (2005), Peyraube (1996), Shen (1992), Djamouri, Paul, and Whitman (2007), Djamouri & Paul (2009), and others argue that VO has been the basic order throughout the attested history of Chinese and that there is no evidence for earlier OV basic order. In this paper, I contribute argumentation for the VO analysis. I show that that OV orders could not have been base-generated. I further identify a motivation for the movement, which is focus. 2. WH-MOVEMENT In this and the following two sections, I examine two of the cases of object fronting introduced in the previous section and show that neither of them should be analyzed as base-generated OV order. In this section, I show that the preverbal objects in wh- questions could appear in a position which could not be analyzed as the verb’s complement. I also argue that wh-fronting was syntactic movement and not cliticization. In section 3, I show that full NPs could appear before the light verb yi only when they were focused and therefore should also be analyzed as having undergone syntactic movement. I do not discuss pronoun fronting to negation in this paper. This phenomenon is addressed in Aldridge (in preparation), where I also propose a syntactic movement analysis, specifically object shift for the purpose of checking structural accusative case. 2.1. WH-MOVEMENT AS OPPOSED TO BASE GENERATION In this subsection, I show that wh-fronting cannot be analyzed as base-generated OV order. First, note that the landing site for wh-movement was not immediate preverbal position. (4) shows that wh-phrases precede negation. Since the wh-phrase is not adjacent to verb which selects it, this position cannot be analyzed as the base position for the object. 3 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE (4) a. 何 城 不 克? (Zuozhuan, Xi 4) He cheng bu ke? what city not conquer ‘What city would (you) not conquer?’ b. 然則 我 何 為 乎 何 不 為 乎? Ranze wo he wei hu? He bu wei hu? then I what do Q what not do Q ‘Then what should I do? What should I not do?’ (Zhuangzi 2.10) Similar evidence comes from long distance wh-fronting. The wh-phrase appears in a position to the left of the matrix verb and is separated from the verb which selects it, i.e. the embedded verb. Hence, these wh-phrases also cannot be analyzed as base-generated in their surface positions. (5) a. 公 誰 欲 與? (Zhuangzi 3.2) Gong shei yu [yu e ]? you who want give ‘Who do you want to give (it) to?’ b. 吾 誰 敢 怨? (Zuozhuan, Zhao 27) Wu she i gan [yuan e ]? I who dare resent ‘Who do I dare to resent?’ The next set of examples shows wh-fronting from subject position in an embedded clause. Aldridge (2009) argues that the causative verb shi is an ECM verb and not an object control verb. On this analysis, the wh-words preceding shi in (6) are not internal arguments selected by shi but are rather the subjects of the embedded clausal complements. (6) a. 若 子 死， 將 誰 使 代 子？ Ruo zi si, jiang shei shi [ e dai zi]? if you die Mod who make replace you ‘If you die, who shall I have replace you?’ (Hanfeizi 22) b. 吾 誰 使 正 之？ (Zhuangzi 2) Wu shei shi [ e zheng zhi]? I who make correct 3.Obj ‘Who shall I have correct it?’ I assume Aldridge’s (2010) analysis of wh-movement in Archaic Chinese as fronting to a focus position in the edge of vP. This analysis is informed by similar proposals of A’ 4 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE positions for topic and focus in the vP layer in Italian (Belletti 2004) and modern Mandarin (Paul 2005). (7) CP OP C’ C TP DP T’ Subj T vP XP v’ [Foc, Wh] t v’ Subj v VP [Foc*] … t … XP 2.2. WH-MOVEMENT NOT CLITICIZATION Aldridge (2010) additionally argues that wh-fronting was not cliticization, contra Feng (1996). Feng (1996) proposes that pronoun fronting to negation and wh-movement were both instances of cliticization. In the context of negation, the pronoun raises out of VP and right-adjoins to the negator. (8) a. 不 患 人 之 不 己 知。 Bu huan ren zhi bu ji zhi ___. not worry others Gen not self understand ‘Do not worry that others do not understand you.’ (Analects 1) b. NegP (Feng 1996:343) Neg VP Neg Cl V t i i For wh-movement, Feng claims that the wh-word first moves to the edge of VP, where it receives a focus interpretation. Subsequently, the wh-word is left-adjoined to the verb. 5 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE (9) S (modified from Feng 1996:346) NP VP FocusP V’ | t V NP wh | NP V t wh wh Examples (4) and (5) in section 2.1 present problems for this analysis, because the wh- phrase appears separated from the VP where it was base merged. The examples in (4) further show that wh-fronting targets a VP-external position above negation. The possibility of phrasal wh-movement in (4a) also suggests that wh-movement is syntactic and not prosodic cliticization. Furthermore, it is clear that wh-movement and pronoun fronting to negation are not the same type of movement. Note (10), where wh-word yan ‘where’ undergoes wh- fronting. (10) 天下 之 父 歸 之， Tianxia zhi fu gui zhi world Gen father settle here 其 子 焉 往？ (Mencius 7) qi zi yan [ wang t ]? VP yan 3.Gen son where go ‘If the fathers of the world settled here, where would their sons go?’ On the other hand, the non-interrogative counterpart yan ‘there’ does not front in the context of negation. The interrogative ‘where’ and non-interrogative ‘there’, both pronounced yan in modern Mandarin, are also reconstructed in Archaic Chinese with the same or very similar pronunciations (Wang 1958)3. Crucially, both are reconstructed as mono-syllabic and having a coda consonant. Therefore, we do not expect them to behave differently with respect to prosodic processes. 3 Thanks to Zev Handel for first pointing out to me that the reconstruction of the two pronouns should be similar, if not the same. 6 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE (11) a. 出 妻 屏 子， 終身 不 養 焉。 Chu qi bing zi, zhongxhen bu yang yan. dispatch wife discard child lifelong not care.for 3.Dat ‘(He) sent his wife away and abandoned his children and was not cared for by them for the rest of his life.’ (Mencius 8) b. 晉 國 天下 莫 強 焉。 (Mencius 1) Jin Guo Tianxia mo qiang yan. Jin nation world none strong 3.Dat ‘The Jin nation, in the world, noone is stronger than them.’ Likewise, the asymmetry in (12) and (13) is also unexpected on Feng’s analysis. In addition to objects in verbal projections, objects of prepositions also undergo wh-fronting. (12) a. 王 誰 與 為 善？ (Mencius 6) Wang [shei [yu e ]] wei shan? king who with be good ‘With whom will the king be good?’ b. 如 伋 去， 君 誰 與 守？ (Mencius 8) Ru Ji qu, jun [shei [yu e ]] shou? if Ji leave you who with serve ‘If I (Ji) left, with whom would you serve?’ The situation is different with negation, however. Negation is not able to attract a pronoun from inside a PP. (13) a. 齊 人 莫 如 我 敬 王。 (Mencius 4) Qi ren mo [ru wo] jing wang. Qi person none like me respect king ‘Of the people of Qi, none respect the king as I do.’ b. 不 與 之 爭 能。 (Xunzi 12) Bu [yu zhi] zheng neng. not with 3.Obj dispute ability ‘(He) does not dispute ability with them.’ In sum, based on the landing site of the movement shown in (4) and (5) and the lack of similarity between wh-fronting and pronoun fronting to negation, I conclude that wh- movement and pronoun fronting should not be analyzed as the same type of movement. The fact that wh-fronting could target a phrasal constituent, as shown in (4a), further argues that wh-movement could not have been cliticization. 7 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE 2.3. WH-WORDS NOT 2ND POSITION CLITICS A second analysis based on cliticization is offered by Shi and Xu (2001). Their proposal is similar to Feng (1996) in that they also claim that Archaic Chinese wh-words were simultaneously clitics and focused constituents. Specifically, Shi and Xu propose that Archaic Chinese wh-words were Wackernagel-type second position clitics. They also carried a [+F] focus feature which provided the motivation for their movement. This proposal suffers from some of the same weaknesses as Feng (1996). The possibility of phrasal movement in (4a) is particularly damaging. There is also very clear evidence that Archaic Chinese wh-words were not restricted to second position. For example, if the modal jiang appears in the clause, an object wh-word must follow the modal and cannot move to its left. This leaves the wh-word in third position in the clause. (14) 我 將 何 求？ (Zuozhuan, Xi 28) Wo jiang he qiu? I will what ask:for ‘What will I ask for?’ In contrast, when we examine a language which uncontroversially has second position clitics, we see that the clitics are in fact required to dislocate in cases like (14) so that they surface in second position in the clause. I illustrate this with examples from Seediq4, an Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan. Like many Formosan and Philippine languages, the language has second position clitic pronouns. Basic word order is VOS, as shown in (15a), with the full NP subject in clause-final position. If the subject is a clitic pronoun, however, it will attach to the first prosodic word in the tensed clause. In (15b), this is the main verb. In (15c), the main verb is preceded by a tense auxiliary, and the clitic moves up to attach to the auxiliary. (15) a. Mari patis Ape. buy books Ape ‘Ape buys books.’ b. Mari=ku patis. buy=I book ‘I buy books.’ c. Wada=ku mari patis. Perf=I buy book ‘I bought books.’ Returning to Archaic Chinese, (16) shows subject wh-words in clause-initial position. Aldridge (2010) argues that subjects in Archaic Chinese underwent A-movement to 4 The Seediq data cited in this paper are taken from the author’s own field notes. 8 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE [Spec, TP]. Consequently, subject wh-phrases were not in the c-command domain of the focus probe on v triggering wh-movement to the edge of vP. This proposal is supported by additional evidence from Wei (1999) that subject wh-phrases occupied a position higher than object wh-phrases, which Aldridge proposes is in-situ in [Spec, TP]. In the examples in (16), we see subject wh-words in initial position in the clause. Note that the subject wh-word in (16a) precedes the modal which the object wh-word follows in (14). (16) a. 誰 將 治 之？ (Yanzi Chunqui 13) Shei jiang zhi zhi? who will govern them ‘Who will govern them?’ b. 誰 能 出 不 由 戶？ (Analects 6) Shei neng chu bu you hu? who can exit not from door ‘Who can exit other than through the door?’ Note further that Shi and Xu’s (2001) analysis cannot be salvaged by claiming that shei ‘who’ does not exhibit the clitic behavior that he ‘what’ does. Like he, shei also undergoes wh-movement when it is base merged in a position c-commanded by v, as seen above in (1b), (5), (6), and (12). One final weakness for both Shi and Xu (2001) and Feng (1996), is that since cliticization targets prosodically weak elements, we do not expect these constituents to be focused. Returning to Seediq, this language has strong pronouns in addition to the weak clitics. The strong pronouns appear in argument positions in a declarative clause. For the subject, this is clause-final position, as in (17a). Note that the subject is also resumed by a clitic, which functions as an agreement marker. The strong pronoun can also be fronted to clause-initial position for focus, as in (17b). However, a clitic cannot be focused in this way, as in (17c). (17) a. Wada=ku mari patis yaku Perf=I buy book I ‘I bought books.’ b. Yaku wada mari patis. I Perf buy book ‘It was I who bought books.’ c. *Ku wada mari patis. I Perf buy book ‘It was I who bought books.’ 9 ALDRIDGE: FOCUS AND ARCHAIC CHINESE This subsection has presented additional evidence for the syntactic analysis of Archaic Chinese wh-movement by arguing that these can not be analyzed as second position clitics. 2.3. SYNTACTIC MOVEMENT => CLITICIZATION: WH-MOVEMENT A cliticization analysis of Archaic Chinese wh-movement is also severely challenged by by the change which took place between Archaic and early Middle Chinese. In this subsection, I show that syntactic wh-movement was reanalyzed as cliticization in the Han period (2nd century BCE). Thus, wh-questions in this period had noticeably different properties from those of the Archaic period examined in the preceding two subsections. Early in the Han period, movement of phrasal wh-constituents was lost, as shown in (18b). In contrast, monosyllabic wh-words continued to undergo fronting, as in (18a). This asymmetry was noticed by Feng (1996) and is correctly predicted by his cliticization analysis. (18) a. 子 將 何 欲？ (Shiji 86) Zi jiang he [ yu t ]? VP he You Mod what want ‘What do you want?’ b. 此 固 其 理 也， 有 何 怨 乎？ Ci gu qi li ye, [ you he yuan ] hu? VP this Adv Dem way Decl have what complaint Q ‘This is the way things are; what complaint could you have?’ (Shiji 81) Wh-fronting was lost from a PP, which is also predicted by Feng’s analysis that clitics were hosted by verbs and not other categories. (19) 陛下 與 誰 取 天下 乎？ (Shiji 55) Bixia [yu shei] qu tianxia hu? sire with who conquer world Q ‘Sire, with whom will you conquer the world?’ Long distance fronting was also lost in the Han period. What is observed instead is movement within the embedded clause. Again, this is predicted by Feng’s analysis, assuming that the wh-word attaches within the VP where it is base-generated. (20) a. 諸 君 欲 誰 立？ (Shiji 43) Zhu jun yu [shei li ___]? all gentleman want who stand ‘Gentlemen, who do you want to place (on the throne)?’ 10