Editors: Fluid Mechanics of Gualtieri Environmental Fluid Mechanics (EFM) studies the motion of air and water Mihailovic´ Environmental Interfaces at several different scales, the fate and transport of species carried along by these fluids, and the interactions among those flows and geological, biological, and engineered systems. EFM emerged some decades ago as a response to the need for tools to study problems of flow and transport in rivers, estuaries, lakes, groundwater and the atmosphere; it is a topic of increasing importance for decision makers, engineers, and researchers Second Edition alike. The second edition of the successful textbook “Fluid Mechanics of Environmental Interfaces” is still aimed at providing a comprehensive overview of fluid mechanical processes occurring at the different interfaces existing in the realm of EFM, such as the air-water interface, the air-land interface, the water-sediment interface, the surface water- groundwater interface, the water-vegetation interface, and the water- EF biological systems interface. Across any of these interfaces mass, nl u momentum, and heat are exchanged through different fluid mechanical v i processes over various spatial and temporal scales. id r In this second edition, the unique feature of this book, considering all the o M topics from the point of view of the concept of environmental interface, was n maintained while the chapters were updated and five new chapters have me been added to significantly enlarge the coverage of the subject area. c The book starts with a chapter introducing the concept of EFM and its eh scope, scales, processes and systems. Then, the book is structured in na three parts consisting of fifteen chapters. Part one, which comprises tn a four chapters, covers the processes occurring at the interfaces between i lc the atmosphere and the surface of the land and the seas, including the Is transport of dust and the dispersion of passive substances within the n o atmosphere. Part two deals in five chapters with the fluid mechanics at t ef the air-water interface at small scales and sediment-water interface, r including the advective diffusion of air bubbles, the hyporheic exchange f and the tidal bores. a Finally, part three discusses in six chapters the processes at the interfaces c between fluids and biotic systems, such as transport processes in the e soil-vegetation-lower atmosphere system, turbulence and wind above s and within the forest canopy, flow and mass transport in vegetated open channels, transport processes to and from benthic plants and animals and coupling between interacting environmental interfaces. Each chapter has an educational part, which is structured in four sections: a synopsis of the chapter, a list of keywords that the reader should have encountered in the chapter, a list of questions and a list of unsolved problems related to the topics covered by the chapter. The book will be of interest to graduate students and researchers Editors: in environmental sciences, civil engineering and environmental engineering, (geo)physics, atmospheric science, meteorology, limnology, Carlo Gualtieri oceanography, and applied mathematics. Second Dragutin T. Mihailovic´ Edition an informa business FLUIDMECHANICSOFENVIRONMENTALINTERFACES,SECONDEDITION CarloGualtieri Toallmylovedones DragutinT.Mihailovic´ ToLadyNwhounderstoodmydreams Fluid Mechanics of Environmental Interfaces, Second Edition Editors Carlo Gualtieri Hydraulic,GeotechnicalandEnvironmentalEngineeringDepartment, UniversityofNapoliFedericoII,Napoli,Italy DragutinT. Mihailovic´ FacultyofAgriculture,UniversityofNoviSad,NovoSad,Serbia CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20121207 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-10924-3 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti- lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy- ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Table of contents Preface VII Prefaceofthefirstedition IX Biographiesoftheauthors XIII Part one – Preliminaries 1. Environmentalfluidmechanics:Currentissuesandfutureoutlook 3 B.Cushman-Roisin,C.Gualtieri&D.T.Mihailovic´ Part two – Processes at atmospheric interfaces 2. Pointsourceatmosphericdiffusion 21 B.Rajkovic´,I.Arsenic´ &Z.Grsic´ 3. Air–seainteraction 53 V.Djurdjevic´ &B.Rajkovic´ 4. Modellingoffluxexchangesbetweenheterogeneoussurfacesandatmosphere 79 D.T.Mihailovic´ &D.Kapor 5. Desertdustuptake-transportanddepositionmechanisms–impacts ofdustonradiation,cloudsandprecipitation 107 G.Kallos,P.Katsafados&C.Spyrou Part three – Processes at water interfaces 6. Gas-transferatunshearedfree-surfaces 145 C.Gualtieri&G.PulciDoria 7. Advectivediffusionofairbubblesinturbulentwaterflows 181 H.Chanson 8. Exchangesatthebedsediments-watercolumninterface 221 F.A.Bombardelli&P.A.Moreno 9. Surfacewaterandstreambedsedimentinteraction:Thehyporheicexchange 255 D.Tonina 10. Environmentalfluiddynamicsoftidalbores:Theoreticalconsiderationsand fieldobservations 295 H.Chanson VI Tableofcontents Part four – Processes at interfaces of biotic systems 11. Transportprocessesinthesoil-vegetation-loweratmospheresystem 325 D.T.Mihailovic´ 12. Turbulenceandwindaboveandwithintheforestcanopy 347 B.Lalic&D.T.Mihailovic´ 13. Flowandmasstransportinvegetatedsurfacewaters 369 Y.Tanino 14. Uniformflowandboundarylayersoverrigidvegetation 395 P.Gualtieri&G.PulciDoria 15. Masstransportinaquaticenvironments 423 G.Nishihara&J.D.Ackerman 16. Mapsservingasthecombinedcouplingbetweeninteractingenvironmental interfacesandtheirbehaviorinthepresenceofdynamicalnoise 453 D.T.Mihailovic´ &I.Balaž Authorindex 473 Subjectindex 475 Preface EnvironmentalFluidMechanics(EFM)studiesthemotionofairandwateratseveraldiffer- entscales,thefateandtransportofspeciescarriedalongbythesefluids,andtheinteractions amongthoseflowsandgeological,biological,andengineeredsystems.EFMemergedsome decadesagoasaresponsetotheneedoftoolstostudyproblemsofflowandtransportin rivers, estuaries, lakes, groundwater and the atmosphere; it is a topic of increasing con- cern for decision makers, engineers, and researchers alike. The 1st edition of the book “FluidMechanicsofEnvironmentalInterfaces”publishedin2008wasaimedatprovidinga comprehensiveoverviewoffluidmechanicalprocessesoccurringatthedifferentinterfaces existing in the realm of EFM, such as the air-water interface, the air-land interface, the water-sedimentinterface,andthewater-vegetationinterface.Acrossanyoftheseinterface, mass, momentum, and heat are exchanged through different fluid mechanical processes overvariousspatialandtemporalscales. Followingthepositivefeedbackaboutthe1steditionofthebookfromtheaudience,we decidedtoofferanewedition.Threearethemainobjectivesthatwearewillingtoachieve withthe2ndeditionof“FluidMechanicsofEnvironmentalInterfaces”. First, toallowall the contributors to update their chapters considering recent findings in a fast developing researchareaastheEFM.Second, toextendthecoverageofthebooktotopicsthatwere notconsideredinthe1stedition,butareindeedofrelevanceintheEFMfield.Third,toadd toeachchapteraneducationalparttoassistteachersandinstructorswhowillusethebook asatextbookorasupplementaryreadingsintheirclasses. Asforthe1stedition,thebookstartswithachapterintroducingtheconceptofEFMandits scope,scales,processesandsystems.Then,thebookisstructuredinthreepartswithfifteen chapters, fivemorethaninthe1stedition. Partone, whichiscomposedoffourchapters, coverstheprocessesoccurringattheinterfacesoftheatmospherewithdesertsandseas.Part twodealsinfivechapterswiththefluidmechanicsattheair-waterinterfaceatsmallscales andsediment-waterinterface. Finally, partthreediscussesinsixchapterstheprocessesat the interfaces between fluids and biotic systems. Most of the chapters existing in the 1st editionwerecarefullyupdatedandinsomecasesalsodeeplyrevisedandre-organized,such asforchapters5and14. Asalreadypointedout,fivenewchapterswereadded.Chapter8,byF.Bombardelliand P.Moreno,presentstheexchangesattheinterfacebetweenbedsedimentsandtheoverlying waters.Theseinteractionshaveatremendousimportancefordiversenaturalandman-made processessuchasfiningandarmouringinrivers,erosion/sedimentationinestuaries,andthe cyclingofdifferentcontaminantsinwaterbodiesatlarge.Inthechapter,thecharacteristics of sediment transport, the concept of incipient motion and the mass balance of solids at theinterfacearefirstintroduced.Thenpredictorsofdiversevariablesneededforthemass balance such as bed load flow rates, entrainment functions, and the settling velocity, and the theory of suspended sediment and of bed load are presented. Moreover, the problem of sediment-laden transport of contaminants in water bodies is addressed. Chapter 9 by D. Tonina deals with the hyphoreic exchange. This term means the continuous mixing betweensurfacewatersandgroundwaterduetospatialandtemporalvariationsinchannel characteristics. The significance of hyporheic exchange in affecting surface and subsur- face water quality and linking fluvial geomorphology, groundwater, and riverine habitat for aquatic and terrestrial organisms has been emerging in recent decades as an impor- tant component of conserving, managing, and restoring riverine ecosystems.The chapter VIII Preface presentstheconcepts,characteristicsandenvironmentaleffectsofhyporheicexchange,and wereviewthemethodsformeasuringandpredictingitscharacteristics,i.e.hyporheicflux andhyporheicresidencetime.Chapter10byH.ChansontreatsEFMaspectsoftidalbores. Atidalboreisahydrodynamicshockpropagatingupstreamasthetidalflowturnstorising. Thetidalborepassageisassociatedwithlargefluctuationsinwaterdepthandinstantaneous velocitycomponentsandwithintenseturbulentmixing,andsedimentscourandadvection in a natural system. Hence the occurrence of a tidal bore is critical to the environmental balanceoftheestuarinezoneinariverandissuessuchasthesedimentationoftheupper estuary, the impact on the reproduction and development of native fish species, and the sustainabilityofuniqueeco-systemsshouldbeconsidered. Inthechapterboththeoretical considerationsrelatedtotheapplicationofcontinuityandmomentumprinciplesintheanal- ysisofatidalboreandfieldobservationsarepresented.Thecomplexinteractionsbetween tidalboresandhumansocietyarealsoshortlydiscussed.Chapter13byY.Taninodescribes flowandmasstransportunderconditionsrelevanttosurfacewatersystemswithemergent vegetation.Vegetatedsurfacewatersaremodelledashomogeneousarraysofdiscrete,rigid, two-dimensionalplantelements. First, typicalfieldconditionsaresummarized.Then, the standardmathematicalformulationforflowthroughanarrayofelementsispresentedand turbulenceandmasstransportwithinahomogeneouscanopyaredescribed.Finally,theflow attheinterfacebetweenanemergentcanopyandopenwaterisconsidered.Chapter16by D.T.Mihailovic´andI.Balazpresentsmapsservingasthecombinedcouplingbetweeninter- actingenvironmentalinterfacesandtheirbehaviorinthepresenceofdynamicalnoise.Many physicalandbiologicalproblems,inadditiontoenvironmentalproblems,canbedescribed bythedynamicsofdrivencoupledoscillators.Thedynamicsoftwomapsactingasthecom- binedcoupling(diffusiveandlinear)isdiscussedusingmethodsofnonlineardynamics,such asbifurcationdiagram,Lyapunovexponent,sampleandpermutationentropy. Asaboveexplained,thethirdreasonforthis2ndeditionwasthewillingoftheeditorsto addattheendofeachchapteraneducationalpart.Thispartisstructuredinfoursections: asynopsisofthechapter,alistofkeywordsthatthereadershouldhaveencounteredinthe chapter,alistofquestionsandalistofunsolvedproblemsrelatedtothetopicscoveredby thechapter. Overall,theuniquefeatureofthisbooktoconsiderallthetopicsfromthepointofviewof theconceptofenvironmentalinterfacewasmaintainedinthis2ndeditionwhilethecoverage ofthebookwassignificantlyenlarged.Asforthe1stedition,theteamoftheinvolvedcon- tributorsismostlyformedbyresearchershighlyexperiencedinthetopicstheyarecovering. Asforthe1stedition, thebookisaimedatgraduatestudents, doctoralstudentsaswell asresearchersincivilandenvironmentalengineering,environmentalsciences,atmospheric sciences, meteorology, limnology, oceanography, physics, geophysics and applied math- ematics.The book can be adopted as a textbook or supplementary reading for courses at thegraduatelevelinEnvironmentalFluidMechanics,environmentalhydraulics,hydraulics, openchannelflows,physicsoftheatmosphere,waterqualitymodeling,airqualitymodeling, atmosphericturbulenceandbio-fluidmechanics. The editors wish to thank all the chapter authors for their continuous and dedicated effortthatmadepossibletherealizationofthisbook.Theeditorsalsothanktheanonymous reviewers of the project for their suggestions and the colleagues, namely F. Bombardelli, A. Bordas, S.T. Rao, and K. Zamani, who presented the 1st edition of the book on inter- national journals such as Environmental Fluid Mechanics, Idojaras and Environmental Modelling and Software, providing thoughtful and detailed remarks that were considered in improving the coverage, the contents and the presentation of this 2nd edition. The editors finally acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of the Editorial Office of CRC Press/Balkemaand,especially,ofDr.JanjaapBlomandMs.JoséVanderVeer. October2012 CarloGualtieri DragutinT.Mihailovic´ Preface of the first edition ThefieldofEnvironmentalFluidMechanics(EFM)aboundswithvariousinterfaces, and it is an ideal place for the application of new fundamental approaches leading towards a betterunderstandingofinterfacialphenomena.Inouropinion,theforegoingdefinitionof an environmental interface broadly covers the unavoidable multidisciplinary approach in environmentalsciencesandengineeringalsoincludesthetraditionalapproachesinsciences that are dealing with an environmental space less complex than any one met in reality. Anenvironmentalinterfacecanbealsoconsideredasabiophysicalunitlyingbetweenthe environmentandtheorganizationhavingthefollowingmajorfunctions:(1)topreventthe harmful signals from being injected into the system directly and attacking the valuable structures and channels; (2) to unify the various directions from sub-systems and recur- sive operations towards the environment; and (3) to fully utilize the internal resources by resolvingexternalvariables.Thewealthandcomplexityofprocessesatthisinterfacedeter- minethatthescientists,asitoftenseems,aremoreinterestedinapossibilityofnon-linear dislocations and surprises in the behavior of the environment than in a smooth extrapo- lation of current trends and a use of the approaches close to the linear physics. In recent times, researchesonfluidmechanicsprocessesattheenvironmentalinterfaceshavebeen increasingly undertaken but within different scientific fields and with various applicative objectives. Theaimofthebookistopresentacomprehensiveoverviewoffluidmechanicalprocesses attheseveralenvironmentalinterfaces.Hence,themattercollectedinthebookcanbecon- sideredasapartofthebroadercontextofEnvironmentalFluidMechanicsinwhichstrong emphasisisplacedontheprocessesinvolvingtheexchangeofmomentum,massandheat acrossanenvironmentalinterface.Thebookisaimedatgraduatestudents,doctoralstudents aswellasresearchersincivilandenvironmentalengineering,environmentalsciences,atmo- sphericsciences, meteorology, limnology, oceanography, physics, geophysicsandapplied mathematics.Thebookcanbeadoptedasatextbookorsupplementaryreadingforcourses atthegraduatelevelinEnvironmentalFluidMechanics,environmentalhydraulics,physics of the atmosphere, water quality modeling, air quality modeling, atmospheric turbulence andbio-fluidmechanics. Previous books within the EFM field covered only partially the topics presented here. In fact, books on atmosphere dynamics or on air pollution cover only the chapters in the Part 1 of the book.Also, existing books on water quality issues deals only partially with theprocessesattheenvironmentalinterfacesofthehydrosphere.Furthermore,sometopics treated in this book, such as momentum and mass-exchange in vegetated open channels, could be found only in papers published on scientific journals. It should be stressed that the book has the unique feature to cover a broad range of scientific knowledge where all thetopicsareconsideredfromthepointofviewoftheconceptofenvironmentalinterface. Finally,theteamoftheinvolvedauthorsismostlyformedbyresearcherswithmanyyears ofexperiencesinthetopicstheyarecovering. ThebookisorganizedinthreepartswithanintroductivechapterbyB.Cushman-Roisin, C.GualtieriandD.T.Mihailovic´, wherescope, scales, processesandsystemsofEFMare described and discussed together with an overview of EFM processes at environmental interfacesandofchallengestobeexpectedinthenextfuture. Part one deals with the processes at the atmospheric interfaces. First, the chapter by B.Rajkovic´, I.Arsenic´ andZ.Grsic´ coverssometheoreticalaspects, includingmolecular