Flight Navigator Handbook 2011 U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service ii Preface The Flight Navigator Handbook provides information on all phases of air navigation. It is a source of reference for navigators and navigator students. This handbook explains how to measure, chart the earth, and use flight instruments to solve basic navigation problems. It also contains data pertaining to flight publications, preflight planning, in-flight procedures, and low altitude navigation. A listing of references and supporting information used in this publication is at Appendix A; mathematical formulas to use as an aid in preflight and in-flight computations are at Appendix B; chart and navigation symbols are at Appendix C.; and a Celestial Computation Sheet is at Appendix D. Any time there is a conflict between the information in this handbook and specific information issued by an aircraft manufacturer, the manufacturer’s data takes precedence over information in this handbook. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR. The current Flight Standards Service (FSS) airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address: [email protected] iii iv Table of Contents Preface....................................................................iii Gnomonic Projection ............................................1-13 Stereographic Projection .......................................1-14 Table of Contents ...................................................v Cylindrical Projections .........................................1-14 Mercator Projection ..............................................1-15 Chapter 1 Conic Projections ..................................................1-16 Maps and Charts..................................................1-1 Lambert Conformal (Secant Cone) .......................1-16 Introduction ....................................................................1-1 Constant of the Cone ...............................................1-19 Basic Terms ...................................................................1-2 Convergence Angle (CA) .........................................1-19 The Earth ........................................................................1-2 Convergence Factor (CF) .........................................1-19 Shape and Size ...........................................................1-2 Aeronautical Charts .....................................................1-19 Great Circles and Small Circles .................................1-2 Lambert Conformal ..................................................1-19 Latitude and Longitude ..............................................1-3 Datums .....................................................................1-19 Imaginary Reference Lines ........................................1-3 Scale .........................................................................1-20 Latitude .......................................................................1-3 Aeronautical Chart ...................................................1-20 Longitude ...................................................................1-4 Representative Fraction ...........................................1-20 Distance ......................................................................1-5 Graphic Scale ...........................................................1-20 Direction .....................................................................1-5 Types of Charts ........................................................1-20 Course .....................................................................1-5 Standard Chart Symbols ...........................................1-20 Bearing ...................................................................1-5 Relief (Hypsography) ...............................................1-20 Great Circle and Rhumb Line Direction ....................1-6 Contour Lines ...........................................................1-20 Time ...............................................................................1-6 Spot Elevations .........................................................1-20 Apparent Solar Time ..................................................1-6 Gradient Tints ...........................................................1-22 Mean Solar Time ........................................................1-7 Shading .....................................................................1-22 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) .................................1-7 Cultural Features ......................................................1-22 Local Mean Time (LMT) ..........................................1-8 Hydrography .............................................................1-22 Relationship of Time and Longitude .............................1-8 Vegetation ................................................................1-22 Standard Time Zone ..................................................1-8 Aeronautical Information .........................................1-22 Date Changes at Midnight ..........................................1-9 Chapter Summary ........................................................1-22 Time Conversion ......................................................1-10 Sidereal Time ...........................................................1-10 Chapter 2 Number of Days in a Year ........................................1-10 Flight Planning .....................................................2-1 Navigator’s Use of Time ..........................................1-10 Introduction ....................................................................2-1 Charts and Projections .................................................1-10 Air Traffic Control (ATC) System .................................2-2 Choice of Projection .................................................1-12 Flight Planning Publications and Charts ........................2-2 Conformality ............................................................1-12 Flight Information Publications (FLIP) ......................2-2 Constant Scale ..........................................................1-12 General Planning (GP) ...............................................2-3 Straight Line .............................................................1-12 Area Planning (AP/1, 2, and 3) ..................................2-3 True Azimuth ...........................................................1-12 Area Planning (AP/1A, 2A, and 3A) ..........................2-3 Coordinates Easy to Locate ......................................1-13 Area Planning (AP/1B) ..............................................2-3 Chart Projections .....................................................1-13 Planning Change Notices (PCN) ................................2-3 Azimuthal Projections .........................................1-13 v Flight Information Handbook (FIH)...........................2-3 Earth’s Magnetic Field ...............................................3-2 FLIP En Route Charts ................................................2-3 Compasses......................................................................3-2 FLIP En Route Supplements ......................................2-3 Magnetic Compass .....................................................3-2 Area and Terminal Area Charts .................................2-3 Direct-Indicating Magnetic Compass .....................3-3 Approaches and Departure Procedures ......................2-3 Deviation ....................................................................3-5 Terminal Change Notices (TCN) ...............................2-3 Remote-Indicating Gyro-Stabilized Magnetic Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR) .................2-4 Compass System .....................................................3-6 Notice to Airman (NOTAM) ......................................2-4 Remote Compass Transmitter .................................3-6 Flight Planning ...............................................................2-4 Directional Gyro (DG) ............................................3-6 Route Determination ..................................................2-4 Amplifier .................................................................3-6 Chart Selection ...........................................................2-4 Master Indicator ......................................................3-6 Total Distance to Fly ..................................................2-4 Gyro-Magnetic Compass Indicators ...........................3-7 Chart and Methods of Navigation ..............................2-4 Slaving Control ..........................................................3-7 Scale ...........................................................................2-4 Gyro Basics ................................................................3-7 NOTAMs ....................................................................2-4 Directional Gyro (DG) ...............................................3-8 Airways ..........................................................................2-5 Gyrocompass Errors ...................................................3-9 Types and Use of Airways ........................................2-5 Altitude and Altimeters ..................................................3-9 Alternate Airfield ........................................................2-5 Standard Datum Plane ................................................3-9 Emergency Airfields ...................................................2-5 Pressure Altimeter Principles of Operation ..............3-10 Highest Obstruction ....................................................2-5 Altimeter Displays ................................................3-10 Special Use Airspace ..................................................2-5 Altimeter Errors ...........................................................3-12 Flight Plans ....................................................................2-5 Setting the Altimeter ................................................3-12 IFR and VFR Flight Plans ..........................................2-5 Nonstandard Atmospheric Effects............................3-12 International Flight Plans ..........................................2-5 Types of Altitude ......................................................3-12 En Route Fuel .............................................................2-5 Indicated Altitude .................................................3-12 Fuel Reserve ..............................................................2-6 Calibrated Altitude ................................................3-12 En Route Plus Reserve ...............................................2-6 Pressure Altitude (PA) ..........................................3-12 Alternate Fuel .............................................................2-6 Density Altitude (DA) ..........................................3-12 Holding Fuel ...............................................................2-6 Approach and Landing Fuel .......................................2-6 True Altitude (TA) ................................................3-13 Total Takeoff or Flaps Up Fuel ..................................2-6 True Altitude (TA) Determination ...........................3-13 Taxi and Runup Fuel ..................................................2-6 Density Altitude (DA) Determination ......................3-13 Required Ramp Fuel ...................................................2-6 Absolute Altimeter .......................................................3-13 Actual Ramp Fuel .......................................................2-6 Radar Altimeter High-Level .....................................3-13 Unidentified Extra Fuel .............................................2-9 Low-Level Radar Altimeter .....................................3-14 Burnoff Fuel ...............................................................2-9 Temperature .................................................................3-14 Range Control Graph..................................................2-9 Temperature Gauges.................................................3-14 Equal Time Point (ETP) .............................................2-9 Temperature Scales ..................................................3-15 Endurance ...................................................................2-9 Airspeed .......................................................................3-15 Route Study ....................................................................2-9 Pitot-Static System ...................................................3-15 Flight Planning ...........................................................2-9 Principles of Operation of Airspeed Indicators ........3-15 Takeoff and Climb ................................................2-12 Airspeed Definitions .................................................3-15 Cruise ....................................................................2-12 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) ......................................3-16 Approach and Landing .........................................2-12 Basic Airspeed (BAS) ...........................................3-16 Chapter Summary ........................................................2-13 Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) ...................................3-16 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) ..................................3-16 Chapter 3 Density Airspeed (DAS) .......................................3-16 Basic Instruments ...............................................3-1 True Airspeed (TAS) ............................................3-16 Introduction ....................................................................3-1 Computing True Airspeed ........................................3-16 Direction ........................................................................3-2 ICE-T Method .......................................................3-16 Basic Instruments .......................................................3-2 vi Alternate TAS Method .........................................3-17 Speed Line ..................................................................5-2 Machmeters ...........................................................3-17 LOPs by Bearings .......................................................5-2 Airspeed Indicators...................................................3-18 Relative Bearings (RB) ..............................................5-2 Air Data Computer ...................................................3-18 Plotting the LOP .........................................................5-2 Doppler .....................................................................3-18 Fixes ...............................................................................5-3 Chapter Summary ........................................................3-19 Adjusting LOPs for a Fix ...........................................5-3 The Running Fix .........................................................5-4 Chapter 4 Accuracy of a Fix .......................................................5-4 Dead Reckoning ..................................................4-1 Radio Aids .....................................................................5-5 Basic Navigation ............................................................4-1 Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) ........................5-5 Dead Reckoning (DR) ................................................4-1 Disturbance .................................................................5-5 Plotting .......................................................................4-2 Control Panels ............................................................5-5 Terms ..........................................................................4-2 Plotting on a Chart ......................................................5-5 Plotting Equipment .....................................................4-2 Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Direction Finders (DF) 5-5 Dividers ...................................................................4-2 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) .........................5-5 Plotter ......................................................................4-2 Control Panel ..............................................................5-5 Plotting Procedures for Mercator Charts ....................4-2 Indicator Panel ............................................................5-6 Preparation ..............................................................4-2 Indicators ....................................................................5-6 Bearing Direction Heading Indicator (BDHI) ............5-7 Plotting Positions ....................................................4-4 Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN).............................5-7 Plotting and Measuring Courses: ............................4-4 Ground Equipment .....................................................5-7 Plotting Course From Given Position .....................4-6 Airborne Equipment ...................................................5-7 Measuring Distance ................................................4-6 TACAN Characteristics .............................................5-7 Plotting Procedures for Lambert Conformal and Bearing and/or Distance Unlock .............................5-7 Gnomonic Charts ........................................................4-7 Azimuth Cone of Confusion ...................................5-7 Plotting Positions ....................................................4-7 Range Indicator Fluctuations ..................................5-8 Plotting and Measuring Courses .............................4-7 Forty Degree Azimuth Error Lock-on ....................5-8 Measuring Distance ................................................4-9 Co-Channel Interference .........................................5-8 Plotting on a Gnomonic Chart ....................................4-9 VORTAC ...................................................................5-8 Plotting Hints ..........................................................4-9 Fix-to-Fix Navigation (Using RMI and BDHI) .........5-8 DR Computer .............................................................4-9 Fix-to-Fix Navigation (Using the MB-4 Computer) ..5-9 Reading the Slide Rule Face .................................4-10 Communication ..............................................................5-9 Problems on the Slide Rule Face ..........................4-10 Long and Short Range Communication .....................5-9 Effect of Wind on Aircraft .......................................4-12 Long Range ................................................................5-9 Drift Caused by Wind ...........................................4-13 Short Range Air-to-Air and Air-to-Ground..............5-13 Drift Correction Compensates for Wind ...............4-14 Chapter Summary ........................................................5-13 Vectors and Vector Diagrams ...............................4-15 Wind Triangle and Its Solution ................................4-16 Chapter 6 Vector Diagrams and Wind Triangles ..................4-16 Map Reading ........................................................6-1 Wind Triangles on DR Computer .........................4-17 Introduction ....................................................................6-1 Wind Triangle Problems .......................................4-23 Checkpoints ................................................................6-2 Average Wind Affecting Aircraft .........................4-28 Chart Selection ...........................................................6-2 Authentically Averaging WDs .............................4-28 Map Reading Procedures ...............................................6-2 Map Reading While Flying At Low Altitudes ...........6-3 Resolution of Rectangular Coordinates ................4-31 Map Reading at Night ................................................6-3 Estimating Distance ....................................................6-3 Chapter 5 Seasonal Changes .......................................................6-3 Radio Aid Fixing ..................................................5-1 Map Reading in High Latitudes .................................6-4 Bearings and Lines of Position ......................................5-1 Contour Map Reading ................................................6-5 Lines of Position (LOP) ............................................5-2 Chapter Summary ..........................................................6-5 Types of LOPs ............................................................5-2 Course Line ................................................................5-2 vii Chapter 7 Finding GHA and Dec of Moon .................................8-8 Radar Navigation .................................................7-1 Finding GHA and Dec of a Star .................................8-8 Radar Principles .............................................................7-1 Celestial Horizon ...........................................................8-9 Radar Set Components ...................................................7-2 Observed Altitude.....................................................8-10 Components ................................................................7-2 True Azimuth (Zn) ...................................................8-11 Radar System Components .....................................7-2 Celestial Fix ..............................................................8-11 Scope Interpretation .......................................................7-5 Chapter Summary ........................................................8-12 Factors Affecting Reflection ......................................7-5 Typical Radar Returns ...................................................7-5 Chapter 9 Returns from Land......................................................7-5 Computing Altitude and True Azimuth ..............9-1 Flat Land .................................................................7-5 Introduction ....................................................................9-1 LHA and the Astronomical Triangle .............................9-2 Hills and Mountains ................................................7-5 Intercept ......................................................................9-2 Coastlines and Riverbanks ......................................7-6 Construction of the Astronomical Triangle ................9-2 Cultural Returns .........................................................7-6 Pub. No. 249, Volume 1 .............................................9-4 Weather Returns .........................................................7-7 Postcomputation Method ............................................9-5 Effects of Snow and Ice..............................................7-7 Pub. No. 249, Volumes 2 and 3 ..................................9-6 Inherent Scope Errors .................................................7-7 Entering Argument .....................................................9-6 Beam-Width Error ......................................................7-7 Interpolation for Declination (Dec) ............................9-6 Pulse-Length Error .....................................................7-7 Postcomputation Summary ........................................9-8 Spot-Size Error ...........................................................7-8 Precession and Nutation .................................................9-9 Total Distortion ..........................................................7-8 Precession ...................................................................9-9 Radar Enhancements ......................................................7-8 Nutation ......................................................................9-9 Variable Range Marker and Crosshairs......................7-8 Position Corrections .................................................9-10 Altitude Delay ............................................................7-8 Chapter Summary ........................................................9-10 Sweep Delay ...............................................................7-9 Iso-Echo......................................................................7-9 Chapter 10 Radar Beacon ...........................................................7-10 Celestial Precomputation .................................10-1 Sensitivity Time Constant (STC) .............................7-10 Introduction .................................................................10-1 Plan Display .............................................................7-11 Presetting the Sextant ...............................................10-2 Profile Display ..........................................................7-11 Precomputation Techniques .........................................10-2 Techniques on Radar Usage .....................................7-11 Motion of the Body Correction ................................10-2 Radar Fixing .........................................................7-11 Special Celestial Techniques ....................................10-2 Slant Range ...........................................................7-11 Celestial Computation Sheets ...................................10-3 Side Lobe Interference ..........................................7-12 Corrections Applied to Hc ........................................10-5 Target-Timing Wind .............................................7-12 Corrections Applied to Hs ....................................10-5 Weather Avoidance ......................................................7-13 Corrections Applied to Hc ....................................10-5 Heading Marker Correction ..................................7-18 Limitations ...............................................................10-7 Chapter Summary ........................................................7-18 Preplotting True Azimuth (Zn) ....................................10-7 Chapter Summary ........................................................10-8 Chapter 8 Celestial Concepts ..............................................8-1 Chapter 11 Introduction ...................................................................8-1 Plotting and Interpreting the Celestial Line of Assumptions ...............................................................8-2 Position ..............................................................11-1 Motion of Celestial Bodies ............................................8-3 Introduction ..................................................................11-1 Apparent Motion ........................................................8-3 Subpoint Method .....................................................11-2 Seasons .......................................................................8-3 Intercept Method .....................................................11-3 Celestial Coordinates .....................................................8-4 Plotting LOP Using Zn Method ...............................11-3 Declination (Dec) .......................................................8-5 Plotting LOP Using Flip-Flop Method ....................11-3 Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) ..................................8-5 Additional Plotting Techniques ................................11-4 Use of the Air Almanac .................................................8-6 Interpretation of an LOP ..............................................11-4 Finding GHA and Dec ................................................8-6 viii