40 “This is a valuable, well-written, and well-researched book that makes a signif- icant contribution to various fields, including Pan-Africanism and the legacy of Malcolm X.” F I —GERALD HORNE, Author, The Counter-Revolution of 1776: G Slave Resistance and the Origins of the USA H T I N In Fighting for Our Place in the Sun, Richard D. Benson II examines the life G of Malcolm X as not only a radical political figure, but also as a teacher and mentor. The book illuminates the untold tenets of Malcolm X’s educational f o philosophy, and also traces a historical trajectory of Black activists that sought r to create spaces of liberation and learning that are free from cultural and O racial oppression. It explains a side of the Black student movement and shift U in black power that develops as a result of the student protests in North Caro- R lina and Duke University. From these acts of radicalism, Malcolm X Liberation University (MXLU), the Student Organization for Black Unity (SOBU/YOBU), P and African Liberation Day (ALD) were produced to serve as catalysts to L A extend the tradition of Black activism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Schol- C ars, researchers, community organizers, and students of African-American E studies, American studies, history of education, political science, Pan-African studies, and more will benefit from this provocative and enlightening text. i n t h “Richard D. Benson II is passionate about his subject and it shows. His book e is a part of the growing body of literature on students in the Black Power S movement, their intellectual influences, and the complex political legacy of U Malcolm X.” N —BARBARA RANSBY, Professor, University of Illinois at Chicago; Author, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement B E Scholar, author, advocate, RICHARD D. BENSON II earned N S a Ph.D. in educational policy studies from the University of O Illinois-at Urbana Champaign. He travels frequently as N a guest lecturer speaking on topics such as the black student movement, and school-community advocacy. P Benson resides in Atlanta, Georgia, where he is Assistant E T E Professor in the Education Studies Program at Spelman R L College. A N G www.peterlang.com 40 “This is a valuable, well-written, and well-researched book that makes a signif- icant contribution to various fields, including Pan-Africanism and the legacy of Malcolm X.” F I —GERALD HORNE, Author, The Counter-Revolution of 1776: G Slave Resistance and the Origins of the USA H T I N In Fighting for Our Place in the Sun, Richard D. Benson II examines the life G of Malcolm X as not only a radical political figure, but also as a teacher and mentor. The book illuminates the untold tenets of Malcolm X’s educational f o philosophy, and also traces a historical trajectory of Black activists that sought r to create spaces of liberation and learning that are free from cultural and O racial oppression. It explains a side of the Black student movement and shift U in black power that develops as a result of the student protests in North Caro- R lina and Duke University. From these acts of radicalism, Malcolm X Liberation University (MXLU), the Student Organization for Black Unity (SOBU/YOBU), P and African Liberation Day (ALD) were produced to serve as catalysts to L A extend the tradition of Black activism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Schol- C ars, researchers, community organizers, and students of African-American E studies, American studies, history of education, political science, Pan-African studies, and more will benefit from this provocative and enlightening text. i n t h “Richard D. Benson II is passionate about his subject and it shows. His book e is a part of the growing body of literature on students in the Black Power S movement, their intellectual influences, and the complex political legacy of U Malcolm X.” N —BARBARA RANSBY, Professor, University of Illinois at Chicago; Author, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement B E Scholar, author, advocate, RICHARD D. BENSON II earned N S a Ph.D. in educational policy studies from the University of O Illinois-at Urbana Champaign. He travels frequently as N a guest lecturer speaking on topics such as the black student movement, and school-community advocacy. P Benson resides in Atlanta, Georgia, where he is Assistant E T E Professor in the Education Studies Program at Spelman R L College. A N G www.peterlang.com ADVANCE PRAISE FOR Fighting Our for Place Sun in the     “Richard D. Benson II’s Fighting for Our Place in the Sun: Malcolm X and the Radicalization of the Black Student Movement 1960–1973 makes a major contribution to the evolving scholarship on the Civil Rights Movement, especially its underresearched Black Power phase, and both Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism. This meticulously researched book also contributes to our understanding of Malcolm X whose legacy has not garnered the scholarly attention it deserves beyond several important biographies. What distinguishes Benson’s treatment of Malcolm X is the focus on his educational philosophy, his impact on SNCC and the broader student movement of the sixties, his evolving gender politics, and his profound influence on the development of Black independent educational institutions.” —BEVERLY GUY-SHEFTALL, Founding Director, Women’s Research & Resource Center, and Anna Julia Cooper Professor of Women’s Studies, Spelman College; Co-Author (with Johnnetta Betsch Cole), Gender Talk: The Struggle for Women’s Equality in African American Communities “Richard D. Benson II’s book will ground oft-misguided declarations about the purpose and future of historically Black colleges and universities.… He connects the political and educational philosophies of Malcolm X, the Nation of Islam, SNCC, SOBU, YOBU, and a constellation of Black organizations to fashion a new interpretive lens.… This remarkable and long-awaited corrective by a teacher/scholar operate[es], as Brother Malcolm did, in Black pedagogical spaces where intergenerational and Pan-African internationalist intellectual work was and is undertaken for broader human transformation. Benson has done our ancestors and current generation proud.” —GREG CARR, Chair, Afro American Studies Department, Howard University Fighting Our for Place Sun in the Rochelle Brock and Richard Greggory Johnson III Executive Editors Vol. 40 The Black Studies and Critical Thinking series is part of the Peter Lang Education list. Every volume is peer reviewed and meets the highest quality standards for content and production. PETER LANG New York  Bern  Frankfurt  Berlin Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw RICHARD D. BENSON II Fighting Our for Place Sun in the MALCOLM X RADICALIZATION AND THE BLACK STUDENT MOVEMENT OF THE 1960–1973 PETER LANG New York  Bern  Frankfurt  Berlin Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Benson, Richard D. II. Fighting for our place in the sun: Malcolm X and the radicalization of the Black student movement, 1960–1973 / Richard D. Benson II. pages cm. — (Black studies and critical thinking; v. 40) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1.African American student movements. 2. African American college students— Social conditions. 3. African American college students—Political activity— History—20th century. 4. X, Malcolm, 1925–1965. 5. Black power—United States. I. Title. LC2781.B355 378.1982996073—dc23 2014022620 ISBN 978-1-4331-1771-8 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4331-1770-1 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-4539-1315-4 (e-book) ISSN 1947-5985 Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/. Cover design concept by Kori Miller © 2015 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006 www.peterlang.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited. Dedication This book is dedicated to my mother, Janice M. Benson; I can never repay you for your patience and love. Thank you for believing in me and for always supporting my efforts (when the rubber hits the road). This book is also dedicated to Rosa Mae and Carl Thomas Carpenter (Grandma and Grandpa). I miss you all dearly and not a day goes by that I don’t think about the three of you. I thank the Most High for the blessing of having had the three of you in my life. Thank you for all that you ever gave me in life and love. To the Most High God, Yeshua/Jesus, through whom all things are made possible, thank you for the strength and fortitude that allowed me to endure the through the toughest of times. I am forever grateful.