Female Identity and  Landscape in Ann   Radcliffe’s Gothic Novels Courtney Laurey Davids This dissertation is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in the Department of English at the University of the Western Cape Supervisor: Dr. H. Wittenberg November 2008 Keywords   • Gothic literature   • Ann Radcliffe   • The Mysteries of Udolpho • Female identity   • Romanticism • Domestic space • Surveillance • Sensibility • The Sublime • Landscape Abstract “Female Identity and Landscape in Ann Radcliffe’s Gothic Novels” The purpose of this dissertation is to chart the development of an ambivalent female identity in the Gothic genre, as exemplified by Ann Radcliffe’s late eighteenth century fictions. The thesis examines the social and literary context of the emergence of the Gothic in English literature and argues that it is intimately tied up with changes in social, political and gender relations in the period. The thesis argues against a superficial reading of the Gothic genre that sees it merely as a counterpoint to eighteenth century values of order, structure, rationality and reason in its depiction of excess, instability and the transgression of conventional hierarchies. In her representation of Gothic castles and ruins, Radcliffe destabilizes domestic space and constructs highly artificial landscapes in which an emergent Enlightenment female subjecthood is allowed to emerge. Radcliffe’s Gothic fictions, especially Mysteries of Udolpho – the focus of this thesis – envision new gender roles, upsetting late eighteenth century notions of male power and female subordination. The novels thus challenge and rework late eighteenth century perceptions of marriage, love and desire, refashioning the novel as a literary form accessible to female authorship. ii Declaration     I declare that “FEMALE IDENTITY AND LANDSCAPE IN ANN RADCLIFFE’S   NOVELS” is my own work, that it has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have utilized or quoted have been   indicated and acknowledged as complete references. COURTNEY LAUREY DAVIDS November 2008 Signed: ______________________ iii Acknowledgements     This dissertation would not have been written without the incredible support and guidance from my supervisor, Dr. Hermann Wittenberg, whose great enthusiasm for this thesis never   failed to ignite my own. I would also like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Prof. Julia Martin who always listened, encouraged and understood. Thank you as well to Cheryl-Ann   Michael for advice given at the right time and to the rest of the staff in the English Department: thank you for your open doors and your open hearts. iv Dedication     To my best friend and husband, Gary Carl Davids: your unending love, support, understanding and belief built a mountain of strength for me to stand on. This is especially for you.   To our three treasures, Jordaen, Riven and Yael: your laughter, patience and love encouraged   me to cross the finish line. In memory of my dad, Patrick Campbell who told me this day would come: through all this I felt your heart, a fountain of belief, your spirit an ocean of hope. And to my mom, Freda Campbell: you are the finest woman I know. I am deeply grateful that you are here to see this dream realized. v Conte nts   Keywords ii   Abstract ii   Declaration iii Acknowledgements iv Dedication v Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1. Overview 1 2. A brief biography of Ann Radcliffe 7 3. Summary of Radcliffe’s Novels 15 4. Thesis Outline 28 Chapter 2: Gothic Theory and Radcliffe’s Novels 30 1. The Rise of Female Authorship 30 2. Gothic and Domestic Space 45 3. History, Nation and the Gothic Imagination 55 Chapter 3: Surveillance, Sensibility and the Sublime in Radcliffe’s Novels 68 1. Watching and Governing 68 2. Proper Management: Sensibility and the Triumph of Reason 77 3. The Sublime and the Transcendence of the female subject 84 4. Sublime and Gender 92 5. Landscape and Gender – the gaze and the propertied female 97 Chapter 4: Through the Gothic Lens: The Mysteries of Udolpho 106 1. Inside Mysteries: Terror and Transgression 106 2. The Reception of Mysteries 110 2. “Sense and Sensibility” in The Mysteries of Udolpho 114 3. Terrorized body, haunted mind: the heroine in Gothic spaces 127 4. Mastered selves and mastered landscapes 141 Chapter 5: Conclusion 154 Bibliography 160 vi Chapter 1     Introduction     1. Overview The purpose of this thesis is to chart the development of a “modern” female identity in Ann Radcliffe’s gothic novels. The Gothic, and especially Radcliffe’s novels, are a rich and complex field of fiction that rewards contemporary re-readings. In this thesis I will argue that Radcliffe transgresses older notions of gender difference by shaping a female identity that does not conform to late eighteenth century definition of females being inferior and subservient to the male-dominated society. Instead, a female identity emerges within her novels that deviates from and challenges eighteenth century ideology of the female as object, to be domesticated in the home, providing pleasure for the male gaze. Diane Long Hoeveler, feminist critic (1998) writes, And whereas the ideology of the Eternal Feminine that dominated the writing of the male canonical poets demanded female submission, economic disenfranchisement of women, and social conformity to their prescribed domestic roles, the female gothic depicted its young female heroines as anything but entrapped, passive and docile (1998:5-6). Already in The Romance of the Forest (1791), Radcliffe’s protagonist, Adeline, responds to the invasive entreaty of the malevolent antagonist, who offers her his fortune if she only marries him: I am sensible of the generosity of your conduct, and also flattered by the distinction you offer me. I will, therefore, say something more than is necessary to a bare expression of the denial which I must continue to give. I can not bestow my heart. You can not obtain more than my esteem, to which, indeed, nothing can so much contribute as a forbearance from any similar offers in future (1986:122). Radcliffe’s heroines are an enticing combination of sensibility and decisiveness, defiant in the face of male tyranny but in control of the situation on their own terms. The lines between female submissiveness and patriarchal control are clearly drawn, “I can not” and “You can not” (1986:122). Here we see Radcliffe juxtaposing patriarchal authority and abuse of male power with the sense of inherent natural freedom (liberty of choice) that resounds in the heroine’s words. 1 In the course of this thesis I will pay particular a ttention to the ambiguity at play in the fashioning of female identity within her texts. In one manner, the ambiguity in Radcliffe’s texts reveals the   struggles female writers encountered in that period, having to conform to society’s expectations of   their literature as being merely fantasy literature while wrestling with their desires for reform, and   utilizing their texts as revolutionary vehicles. In another and far more arresting manner, her Gothic fictions reveal Radcliffe’s skill in fashioning a female identity that is not overtly transgressive, but is also paradoxically, reaffirming of enlightenment values like rationality, sensibility and prudence. While her heroines embody an identity that is negotiated by them on their own terms, it also embodies attributes and an observance of tenets that portray them as transcending the romantic stereotype where liberty equals wild abandon and lack of decorum. In Radcliffe’s Gothic romances, the figure of the female heroine becomes the contested terrain in which the Enlightenment values of liberty, freedom of choice and rational decision making come into conflict with the older patriarchal values that seek to put women in their place. To use Nancy Armstrong’s words, “The female was the figure, above all else, on whom depended the outcome of the struggle among competing ideologies” (1987:5). A close study of Radcliffe’s novels shows that her appropriation of the initially male-authored Gothic genre gives her an avenue for challenging and reworking late eighteenth century perceptions of female identity, marriage, love and desire as well as contributing to burgeoning debates around politics and societal norms. While these conflicts play themselves out on the level of character interaction, I will also argue that gendered identities are staged and performed within highly artificial, constructed fantastical landscapes. Gothic castles and ruins, vaults and labyrinthine passages, which function as stages for the actions of villains and heroines, abbots and abbesses, can be understood as allegorical representations that map out the relationships between female characters and a sexualized landscape. Gothic space, I will argue, is invariably gendered. Radcliffe’s specific representation of her heroines within these landscapes is significant for the way in which her Gothic novels envision new gender roles. The Gothic was a popular literary genre that emerged in the late eighteenth century, particularly in England. The late eighteenth century was a period of momentous social and political upheaval. In France the Revolution (1789-1799) was proclaiming the rights of man 2 and in England, Dissenters were challenging the  old aristocratic order. It is within this social context that the late eighteenth century witnessed an emergence and influence of the Gothic.   The Gothic genre provided a vehicle by which writers could shock, terrorize, chill and thrill   the reading public. Stock Gothic ingredients that loosely define this genre are hauntings and   ghosts, gloom and eerie noises, phantom lights and bloody armour, open graves, ruins and tormented whisperings. Frank Botting (1996) adds to this Gothic formula “dark subterranean vaults, decaying abbeys, gloomy forests, jagged mountains and wild scenery inhabited by bandits, persecuted heroines, orphans, and malevolent aristocrats” (1996:45). In Chapter 2, I will expand on this brief account of the Gothic, but at this point it is useful to provide a general overview. The Gothic has always been considered a minor genre in English Literature from its origins in 1764 with the publication of Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto to its hypothetical demise in 1820. One reason for its inferior status is attributed to the parallel emergence of Romanticism (1780-1848) as a more main-stream literary movement associated with the prestigious names of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Byron, Shelley and Blake. Romanticism is conventionally thought of as a cultural counterpoint to the Enlightenment, and the Gothic can be understood as an extreme form of this reaction against reason, order and rationality. Margaret Drabble defines Romanticism as a literary movement, and profound shift in sensibility, which took place in Britain and throughout Europe roughly between 1770 and 1848. Intellectually it marked a violent reaction to the Enlightenment. Politically it was inspired by the revolutions in France and America... Emotionally it expresses an extreme assertion of the self and the value of individual experience...The stylistic keynote of Romanticism is intensity, and its watchword is ‘Imagination’ (cited by Aidan Day, Romanticism, (1996: xx)). I suggest that this definition is relevant to the Gothic sub-genre as well. It has attracted considerable attention in English Studies not because it necessarily produced works of great artistic merit, but because it is an extreme form of literature that reflects the major social and political shifts of the period. In a major theoretical work, The Gothic (2004) David Punter and Glynnis Byron claim that, “The Gothic is frequently considered to be a genre that re- emerges with particular force during times of cultural crisis and which serves to negotiate the anxieties of the age by working through them in a displaced form” (2004:39). James Watt, in 3 his work, Contesting The Gothic-Fiction, Genr e and Cultural Conflict, 1764-1832(1999), confirms Punter and Byron’s assertion of social and political crisis serving as a catalyst for   the generation of the Gothic genre, but suggests that readers of Radcliffe sought a “legitimate   form of withdrawal from the troubles of the present” (1999:103). Although Watt’s, and   Punter’s and Byron’s idea largely conform to the predominant view of Radcliffe’s novels as escapist, their views only confirm a fraction of Drabble’s definition that can be applied to the Gothic sub-genre. It is a narrowed one; ignoring the fundamental idea that Radcliffe’s work also positively helps to construct a new form of gender identity and social relations. Most significantly, although the Gothic has traditionally been dismissed as a popular, lower form of fantasy literature, recent revisionist criticism has read the Gothic as a transgressive genre where “anything might happen and where its excessive emotional experiences of desire, terror, and pleasure become reading-experiences of female liberation” (Becker 1999:1-2). The idea of female liberation is then central to the Gothic and this idea will be expanded upon in later chapters. The Gothic was a severe reaction against Enlightenment because it defied neo-classical beliefs of order and symmetry that marked this period’s aesthetics as well as societal beliefs in restraint, rationality and reason that effaced the imagination. As Punter puts it in his earlier work, The Literature of Terror-A History of Gothic Fiction from 1765 to the present the “Gothic was chaotic...where the classics offered a set of cultural models to be followed, Gothic represented excess and exaggeration, the product of the wild and uncivilized” (1980:6). It was inspired by the revolutions of France and America because of its concentration on freedom and liberty. Gothic novels often critiqued the arbitrariness and terror of aristocratic rule, thereby promoting equality between classes. Watt (1999) proffers a historically grounded reading of Gothic fiction. He argues that a historical perspective of the Gothic must acknowledge that the genre itself is a “relatively modern construct because interest in it as a “descriptive” category emerged within twentieth century literary criticism (1999:1). Watt peruses the works of other twentieth century literary critics like David Punter (1980) and Robert Miles (1995), distinguishing their criticism as being groundbreaking in their focus on the Gothic as a literature of “self-analysis” (1999:2). By this, it seems, Watt classifies the genre as facilitating a kind of self-examination of the nation, of national culture, 4