FARM SECURITY ADMINISTRATION PHOTOGRAPHS IN INDIANA A STUDY GUIDE Roy Stryker Told the FSA Photographers “Show the city people what it is like to live on the farm.” TABLE OF CONTENTS   Introduction 1 The FSA - OWI Photographic Collection at the Library of Congress 1 Great Depression and Farms 1 Roosevelt and Rural America 2 Creation of the Resettlement Administration 3 Creation of the Farm Security Administration 3 Organization of the FSA 5 Historical Section of the FSA 5 Criticisms of the FSA 8 The Indiana FSA Photographers 10 The Indiana FSA Photographs 13 City and Town 14 Erosion of the Land 16 River Floods 16 Tenant Farmers 18 Wartime Stories 19 New Deal Communities 19 Photographing Indiana Communities 22 Decatur Homesteads 23 Wabash Farms 23 Deshee Farms 24 Ideal of Agrarian Life 26 Faces and Character 27 Women, Work and the Hearth 28 Houses and Farm Buildings 29 Leisure and Relaxation Activities 30 Afro-Americans 30 The Changing Face of Rural America 31 Introduction This study guide is meant to provide an overall history of the Farm Security Administration and its photographic project in Indiana. It also provides background information, which can be used by students as they carry out the curriculum activities. Along with the curriculum resources, the study guide provides a basis for studying the history of the photos taken in Indiana by the FSA photographers. The FSA - OWI Photographic Collection at the Library of Congress The photographs of the Farm Security Administration (FSA) - Office of War Information (OWI) Photograph Collection at the Library of Congress form a large-scale photographic record of American life between 1935 and 1944. The collection encompasses the images made by photographers working in Roy Stryker's Historical Section as it existed in a succession of government agencies: the Resettlement Administration (1935-1937), the Farm Security Administration (1937-1942), and the Office of War Information (1942-1945). The collection also includes photographs acquired from other governmental agencies, including the News Bureau at the Office of Emergency Management and various branches of the military, as well as nongovernmental sources. The total collection consists of about 164,000 black-and-white film negatives and transparencies, 1,610 color transparencies, and approximately 107,000 black-and- white photographic prints. The black-and-white photographic prints consist of about 77,000 images produced by photographers under Stryker's direction and about 30,000 photographs acquired from other sources. Great Depression and Farms Between 1931 and 1940, the nonfarm jobless rate never fell below 21%. In no year in the 1930s would the unemployment rate fall below 14% and the average for the decade as a whole was 17.1 %. Workers under the age of 20 or over 60 were twice as likely to be out of a job. A study commissioned by Harry Hopkins, Director of the Works Progress Administration, found that unemployment affected most heavily the young, elderly, least educated, unskilled and rural Americans. The time period from 1900 to 1910 is known as the golden age of American agriculture. But farm mortgages doubled between 1910 and 1920 from $3.3 to $6.7 billion. After the Armistice in 1918 farm prices plummeted. For farmers the depression started with the end of the wartime boom of the First World War. There was a steep decline in agricultural prices. For example, cotton went from wartime high of 35 cents per pound to 16 cents in 1920. In the 1920s per capita farm income was one-third the national average. The agricultural depression was not a result of Study Guide - 2 the 1929 crash, for on the farm the Great Depression was well into its second decade. In addition to declining crop prices, the causes of the problem also included: § Crop overproduction § Extremely high farm debt § Disappearing foreign markets § Changing domestic markets § Droughts and floods Rural poverty had been spreading and intensifying the entire decade of the 1920s. Many farmers had to sell their land. Sharecropping increased throughout the country, especially in the South. Over-farming led to erosion. The most pressing problem was the plunge in the standard of living among many farm families. In 1930, 49% of all Americans lived in communities of less than 8,000 and 45% in rural areas of less than 2,500. Forty-seven percent or nearly 3 million farmers lived in poverty. Only one in ten farms had electricity. In 1932, the annual net farm income dropped from $56.1 billion in 1929 to $2 billion. Wheat dropped to 23 cents a bushel, the lowest in 200 years. There were 533,000 more migrations to the countryside from urban areas than vice versa. In 1933, the value of farm goods dropped 62% since the stock market crash to its lowest point in February. The value of farm property dropped from $57.7 million in 1929 to $36.3 million. Farm income was less than one third of the already depressed 1929 figure. Nearly 45 % of farms were behind in their mortgages and faced foreclosure. Poverty was more visible in cites and the rural poor were often overlooked in the rustic beauty of the countryside. Historically, rural poverty was a private matter. No programs existed for social welfare in rural areas. The need for relief and rehabilitation programs was looked upon with ambivalence and embarrassment. Farmers still constituted 30% of the nation’s workforce, a significant sector that was in jeopardy. Roosevelt and Rural America Franklin Roosevelt had a strong affinity for farmers. While Governor of New York, he gave a speech in Indianapolis in June 1931 at the Annual Governors’ Conference entitled “Acres Fit and Unfit: State Planning of Land Use for Industry and Agriculture.” He believed that industrial recovery would depend on the revival of agricultural purchasing power and the nation’s prosperity rested on an agricultural base. He felt that what was good for the farmer was good for the country and that poor land created poor people. Roosevelt also believed that the quality of Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 3 farm life was a key indicator of American character and crucial to recovery. He cherished the old agrarian conviction that rural life sustained both individual character and community. In 1932 while campaigning for the presidency, Roosevelt reminded voters that New York was not just tall buildings but a farm state, first in the nation in income from dairy cows and hay, second in production of apples and grapes, and sixth in overall farm income. He even listed himself in Who’s Who as a tree farmer. He considered himself a sort of a gentleman farmer, harvesting trees and selling some at Christmas time. He started conservation efforts at Springwood, his home at Hyde Park, in 1910 and by his death in 1945 had overseen the planting of half a million trees on 556 acres. In a 1936 campaign speech President Roosevelt praised “the American farmer, living on his own land” as “our ideal of self-reliance and of spiritual balance - the source from which the reservoirs of the Nation’s strength are constantly renewed.” Creation of the Resettlement Administration In 1935 President Roosevelt consolidated several farm programs into the Resettlement Administration by Executive Order and named Rexford Tugwell as Head. Tugwell was a professor of economics at Columbia University, who became an advisor to Roosevelt during his campaign for the presidency in 1932. He was part of Roosevelt’s original Brains Trust. In 1933 he was appointed to the Department of Agriculture and served as Undersecretary. He helped to create the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and was its Director, until taking over the Resettlement Administration. Tugwell advocated government planning and economic intervention to improve living conditions in rural America and to reduce rural poverty. Tugwell talked about the importance of government, industry and agriculture working together, in what he called a “concert of interests.” The reform of agriculture through planning in the interest of efficiency was the ultimate aim. Tugwell resigned from the Resettlement Administration at the end of 1936. He later served as the Director of the New York City Planning Commission, the last appointed Governor of Puerto Rico from 1941to1946, where he wanted to establish a photographic project like the FSA’s. He eventually returned to academia. Creation of the Farm Security Administration In 1937 Congress passed the Farm Security Act, which folded the Resettlement Administration into a new body, the Farm Security Administration (FSA), which operated until 1942. The aim was to take millions of acres of unproductive land owned by farmers that had been exhausted by deforestation, over-farming, and drought and resettle families on better land into communities planned by the agency, including homesteads, model farms and greenbelt towns. The goal was to resettle 450,000 families, but only 10,000 to 12,000 were ever resettled. The FSA sought to Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 4 establish cooperative farm communities of small landowners reflecting the frontier spirit of sharing. Farmers would live together under the guidance of government experts and learn more efficient farming methods. The FSA was created to rescue the chronic rural poor, receiving little or no benefits. The chronic rural poor included subsistence farmers living on marginal land, migratory farm laborers and tenants and sharecroppers. President Roosevelt's early agricultural policy had been to try to decrease agricultural production and increase prices. But what many renters really wanted was financial aid to purchase farms. The Department of Agriculture did not have a program to help farmers to buy farms. Then in 1937, with funds from the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, the FSA was able to help tenant farmers purchase farms. The FSA had four main tasks: resettlement, rehabilitation, land utilization and technical assistance. Resettlement was the least costly but most controversial. The aim was to: § Relocate impoverished farmers to new rural communities and relocate the urban poor to suburbs § Build model cooperative farmsteads, subsistence homesteads and greenbelt towns § Help tenant farmers purchase or enlarge farms with funds from the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act Rehabilitation was most costly but least controversial. The aim was to: § Administer emergency loans at low rates to buy or improve farms § Give loans for feed, seed, fertilizer, livestock, equipment and repairs § Provide emergency grants for natural disasters and relief § Settle farm debt adjustment cases The aim of land utilization was to: § Battle soil erosion and promote soil conservation § Take the worst land out of production and resettle displaced farmers § Buy substandard, submarginal land and convert to more appropriate uses The aim of technical assistance was to: § Give educational aid to farm families § Provide demonstrations, instruction and supervision § Provide training in basic business skills and bookkeeping § Teach classes in the areas of home economics and child rising   § Develop other related businesses Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 5 The magic ingredients that were supposed change rural America were cooperation, education, financial help and expert supervision. Organization of the FSA The Resettlement Administration, later the FSA, started with twelve employees and by end of the year it had 16,386. Approximately 4,200 employees came from nine other agencies. The staff ultimately numbered 19,000 and was in every state. Seventy-five percent were employed outside Washington, D.C. There were twelve regional offices, plus Puerto Rico. There were district offices in each state, with county offices as well. The FSA employed over 4,000 rural rehabilitation and home management supervisors. Other staff included lawyers, accountants, statisticians, doctors, nurses, soil engineers, teachers, sociologists, political scientists, economists, and specialists in farm management, sanitation, public health and preventive medicine. In 1941, Theodore Schultz, who later won the Nobel Prize in Economics, reported that the FSA led all other federal agencies in the number of personnel with training or education in the social sciences. In essence the FSA county supervisor was a teacher, banker, farm expert, family case worker and community organizer. The county offices were very active at the local level and interacted with numerous government agencies, including the Soil Conservation Service, Works Progress Administration, Farm Credit Administration, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, National Youth Administration, Agricultural Extensions and local elected officials. They also worked closely with local teachers, bankers, ministers, civic and farm organization leaders, health and hospital officials, and relief and welfare workers. Historical Section of the FSA There were five Sections in the Information Division: Historical, Radio, Documentary Film, Special Publications and Editorial. The Information Division maintained offices in each region, coordinated in Washington, D.C., but under the supervision of Regional directors. The Information Division of the FSA was responsible for providing educational and press information to the public and government. The official job description was: To direct the activities of investigators, photographers, economists, sociologists and statisticians engaged in the accumulation and compilation of reports, statistics, photographic material, vital statistics, agricultural surveys, maps and sketches necessary to make accurate descriptions of the various phases of the Resettlement Administration, particularly with regard to the historical, sociological and economic aspects of the several programs and their accomplishments. Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 6 In 1935 Tugwell appointed his former Columbia University student Roy Stryker in charge of the Historical Section in the Information Division of the FSA. The Historical Section’s headquarters was located in Washington, D.C. The Historical Section hired staff, drafted budgets and allocated travel funds. They also distributed film and equipment. The staff at headquarters developed, printed, and numbered negatives. The headquarters also distributed images to newspapers, magazines, publishers and government agencies. Over the summer months of 1938 Stryker estimated that his lab processed 7,000 prints for the FSA and other clients. In 1940 more than 1,400 images appeared in publications each month. A Committee on Exhibits, made up of one member from each of the divisions concerned with exhibits, also put together photo exhibits. A technical subcommittee, including the Chief of the Historical Section, was set up to execute approved exhibits. Exhibits were a form of advocacy education. The exhibits were designed by the Special Skills Division and the Historical Section of the Information Division. The exhibits fell into three groups. Large scale exhibits for expositions included the: California Pacific International Exposition in San Diego, Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas and Great Lakes Exposition in Cleveland. The second category was for smaller conferences, conventions and meeting such as the: Columbia Teachers Meeting, National Conference of Social Workers and Museum of Modern Art. The last category was a standard panel exhibit covering the programs of the agency. It was designed to be easily handled and shipped and adaptable to presentation under varying conditions. It was reproduced for each region. They showed exhibits at county fairs, libraries, and other types of local meetings, such as 4H Clubs. It was also reproduced as an under the arm photographic portfolio for individual travel by county employees. The Historical Section had a photographic lab and darkroom. Usually no more than six photographers were employed at any one time. They were compensated about $2,300 to $3,200 per year. Stryker’s staff never exceeded 28, with lab technicians and clerical staff outnumbering photographers. The low point was ten in 1937. In 1941and 1942 Stryker estimated that his budget was between $67,000 and $68,000 with two-thirds going for salaries. This was when total expenditures for the entire FSA exceeded a billion dollars. The Information Division of the FSA was responsible for providing educational and press information to the public and government agencies. Under Stryker, the Historical Section adopted the goal of "introducing America to Americans." Stryker hired photographers to document the plight of the rural poor. For example, one of Stryker’s plans was to photograph migrant workers in a way that would tell a story about their daily lives, and to achieve this, he assigned his photographers various themes. In later years the photography project was expanded to include depictions of life all over the United States. In 1942 Stryker’s unit was transferred to the Office of War Information, at which point the photographers focused on mobilization during Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 7 World War II. FSA photos were used by newspapers, as in the New York Times article by Lee E. Cooper, entitled FSA Winding Up Its Homestead Program; Built 11,800 Farm Dwellings as ‘Models.’ In the article there is an insert of six FSA photos, including a photo of a typical home at Wabash Farms in Indiana. The caption over the photo says “The FSA Hopes These Small Homes Will Be Models for Future Rural Construction.” Stryker sought photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa" because those photographs helped the idea that poverty could be changed through reform. One method was to send photographers to shoot before and after stories about resettlement and other projects to show the need for action and the results of FSA programs. There were many aims, including to: § Emphasize the importance of agriculture to the overall economy § Promote the benefits of FSA programs and ensure continued funding from Congress § Explain to Congress and the public its programs and what it was trying to accomplish § Create sympathy with the public and government officials for sharecroppers, tenant farmers and migrants § Distribute photos that are different than those taken by commercial and industrial photographers Photographers in the Historical Section were sent out on assignments throughout the entire country and Puerto Rico. Stryker was very good at getting the best out of his photographers. Before going out on assignments every photographer was supposed to learn as much as possible about the geographical area they were going to. They were encouraged to consult J. Russell Smith’s socioeconomic text, North America: Its People and the Resources, Development, and Prospects of the Continent as the Home of Man, as well as maps, government pamphlets and magazines, such as Look, Life, Harper’s and Atlantic. Stryker did not tell his photographers how to shoot their photos, but he did give them lists of themes. He briefed them on their assignments before being sent out, giving them detailed instructions, or so called “shooting scripts.” He also wrote letters, memos and notes as well, such as one, dated January 14, 1936, to Dorothea Lange: As you are driving along through the agricultural area and if you can do it without too much extra effort, would you take a few shots of various types of farm activities such as your picture showing the lettuce workers? I think Dr. Tugwell would be very appreciative of photographs of this sort to be used as illustrative material for some things which the Department of Agriculture is working on. I would not want you to take too much time to do this, but of the various types of agricultural activity in the area I think it would be very much worthwhile. Lange took eleven photos in Clayton in Hendricks County, Indiana, very near US 40, the old national road, in July 1936. The summer heat was intense and she was worried about the quality Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP Study Guide - 8 of the negatives, but they turned out wonderfully. Her photos of threshing convey the nature of this hard and dirty work. She became interested in the mechanization of agriculture and thought perhaps that threshing crews were a rare and disappearing sight on the American landscape. Assignments usually took photographers on lengthy trips to several states at a time. In July of 1936, Dorothea Lange was possibly in twelve others states besides Indiana, as well as the District of Columbia. Some of the FSA photographers were travelling through Indiana on their assignments. For example, when Arthur Rothstein photographed Parke and Vermillion Counties, he most likely entered Indiana in February, 1940 on highway US 52 from Ohio at West Harrison, Indiana and left the state most likely on highway US 36 near Dana, Indiana on his way to Illinois. Stryker was not the only one to give scripts or outlines to photographers. Other administrators in the Information Division as well as regional and district administrators gave ideas as well. Often the photographers were accompanied on their assignments by regional or district officials, who also provided suggestions and took their own photos for the local FSA offices. Criticisms of the FSA The FSA was never sure of its aim, whether it was to hasten modernization and efficiency of farming or increase the number of small land owners who could stay on the land. The agenda of the FSA was complex and sometimes contradictory, attempting to combine old agrarian ideals with a new faith in the ideas of experts and governmental policies. Throughout the 1930s, one half of all seats in the U. S. House of Representatives and nearly all U. S. Senate seats represented districts or states with substantial farm populations. But most rural representatives in Congress were concerned with large farm owners and not tenants, small farmers and sharecroppers. They latter looked to the Executive Branch for help. The rural poor did not constitute a true power base or constituency, and there were no lobbyists for the rural poor. Administrative and construction costs were high. The FSA communities often had serious cost overruns. This was a major criticism, as the per unit housing cost often exceed those in the private sector. Because of the extraordinary rapid growth of the FSA, administrators had a hard time keeping track of their divisions and field supervisors lacked a sense of direction. FSA county supervisors were also second-class government bureaucrats, denied civil service status and paid less than their counterparts in the Agricultural Adjustment Administration or Soil Conservation Service. Indiana Farm Security Administration Photographs Digital Collection http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/IFSAP