Reading in a Foreign Language October 2013, Volume 25, No. 2 ISSN 1539-0578 pp. 149–169 Factors underlying second language reading motivation of adult EAP students Reiko Komiyama California State University, Sacramento United States Abstract Characteristics of English for Academic Purposes students’ second language (L2) motivation were examined by identifying underlying motivational factors. Using the motivation constructs created by first language reading researchers, a survey was developed and administered to 2,018 students from 53 English language programs in the U.S. Survey responses were analyzed through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Results indicate that a five-factor structure was best for interpreting the data, accounting for approximately 44% of the total variance. The identified factors included one intrinsically-oriented factor (Intrinsic Motivation) and four extrinsically-oriented factors (Drive to Excel, Academic Compliance, Test Compliance, Social Sharing). The results support the multidimensional nature of L2 reading motivation and the importance of intrinsic motivation in explaining L2 reading motivation. Keywords: motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, English for Academic Purposes, intensive English program Despite the importance of reading in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) contexts, the role of motivation in developing EAP reading skills is inadequately understood. Researchers have long recognized that motivation cannot be neglected in understanding hows econd language (L2) reading works (e.g., Eskey, 1986; Grabe, 2009; Grabe & Stoller, 2011). However, motivation has been viewed as a relatively minor issue in L2 reading research (Huang, 2006), and, as a result, research on L2 reading motivation has just started to grow. In contrast, research on first language (L1) reading motivation is expansive. Research with L1 readers indicates that motivation closely associates with reading behaviors, such as increased reading amount, better text comprehension, and more effective strategy use (e.g., Gottfried, 1990; Guthrie et al., 2007; Lau & Chan, 2003; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). The importance of motivation in L1 reading development suggests the need to thoroughly explore the potential impact of motivation on L2 reading behaviors and outcomes. This need seems particularly prominent in EAP contexts, where students are often under tremendous pressure to become highly proficient L2 readers. The present study, therefore, examined L2 reading motivation of students in North American pos-tsecondary EAP contexts. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 150 As the bases for measuring, interpreting, and discussing student motivation, the study adopted the motivation constructs identified by L1 reading researchers, focusing on those related to the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in particula.r Nature of L1 Reading Motivation Research with L1 readers has indicated that motivation to read is not a unitary concept. In their research with elementary school children in the U.S., Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) identified as many as eleven dimensions—or constructs—of L1 reading motivation. These constructs were based on multiple theories and concepts related to human motivation, including se-lfefficacy theory (e.g., Bandura, 1986; Shunk & Pajares, 2004), the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), expectancy-value theory (e.g., Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), goal-orientation theory (e.g., Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, Cheung, Lauer, & Patashnick, 1989), and the concept of sociall-yoriented goals (e.g., Wentzel, 1991, 1996). The distinctiveness of the eleven constructs has been supported empirically with children at fourth, fifth, and sixth grades in the U.S. (Baker & Wigfield, 1999; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). This eleven-dimensional framework has since been widely adopted or adapted in research across various L1 settings, including K-12 educational institutions in the U.S. (e.g., Baker & Wigfield, 1999; Guthrie et al., 2006; Guthrie, Hoa, Wigfield, Tonks, & Perencevich, 2006; Guthrie, Wigfield, & VonSecker, 2000; Mucherah & Yoder, 2008), in Hong Kong (Lau, 2004), and in Slovenia (Pecjak & Peklaj, 2006) . Wigfield and Guthrie’s (1997) framework was later revised by Wang and Guthrie (2004), who proposed an eight-dimensional model instead. Of the original eleven constructs, Wang and Guthrie’s (2004) model retained only those related to the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation differs from extrinsic motivation in that it originates in the desire to engage in an activity solelyf or the enjoyment that it provides (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Three of Wang and Guthrie’s( 2004) constructs—Curiosity, Involvement, and Preference for Challenge—were associated with intrinsic motivation, indicating that intrinsically-motivated readers would read because they want to learn about topics of personal interest, to experience pleasure reading interesting materials, and to gain satisfaction from tackling challenging ideas presented in text. Unlike intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motiavtion is generated by factors such as external rewards (e.g., recognition), internal feelings (e.g., guilt), and societal values (e.g., importance) assigned to the target activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Five remaining constructs of Wang and Guthrie (2004)—Competition, Compliance, Recognition for Reading, Grades, and Socia—l were associated with extrinsic motivation. Extrinsically-motivated readers, therefore, were thought to read to fulfill requirements, outperform peers, obtain good evaluaitons and recognition from others, and share what they read with others. In Wang and Guthrie’s study, the stability and validity of the eigh-dt imensional model were supported by a sample of fourth-grade children in the U.S. and a similar sample in Taiwan, both reading in their L1s. Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 151 Nature of L2 Reading Motivation The constructs of L1 reading motivation discussed above have influenced research on L2 reading motivation to various degrees. Some L2 research on the nature of reading motivation has been directly influenced by the two models of L1 reading motivation. Tercanlioglu (2001) adopted Wigfield and Guthrie’s (1997) eleven-dimensional framework. She found that high schoo l English as a foreign language (EFL) students in Turkey demonstrated both high intirnsic and high extrinsic motivation, with relatively low levels of work avoidance. Some variations across gender and grade levels were observed in her study. Wang and Guthrie’s (2004) eigh-t dimensional model was used by Dhanapala (2006), who examined L2 raeding motivation of college EFL students in Japan and in Sri Lanka. Her results indicate that both Japanese and Sri Lankan students tended to read for extrinsic reasons, such as receiving recognition from others. Some differences, however, were observed between the two EFL settings: Compliance motivation was favored by Japanese students, but for Sri Lankan students, Grades and Competition appeared to be strong motivators. In both studies, the motivation constructs developed for L1 readers proved to be useful in interpreting motivational tendencies of L2 readers. Other L2 researchers (e.g., Apple, 2005; Kondo-Brown, 2009; Lin, Wong, & McBride-Chang, 2012; Mori, 2002, 2004; Takase, 2007) sought motivation constructs unique to L2 readers, using various theories, concepts, and constructs, including those proposed by L1 reading researchers. Table 1 summarizes the motivation constructs that emerged from these L2 studies. As shown in Table 1, the motivation constructs identified in these L2 reading studies have oeftn been associated with the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For example, in Takase (2007), the reading motivation of Japanese high school EFL students was characterized by Intrinsic Motivation for L1 Reading, Intrinsic Motivation for L2 Redaing, and Entrance-exam Related Extrinsic Motivation, together with three other constructs . Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 152 Table 1. Reading motivation constructs identified by L2 researcher s Source Participants Constructs of L2 reading motivation identified Apple (2005) 85 college EFL a) Instrumental Orientation students in Japan b) Attitudes toward L1 Reading c) Interest in L2 Language and Culture d) Language Learning Beliefs e) Attitudes toward L2 Study th Lin, Wong, & 104 5 graders in a) Self Efficacy McBride-Chang Hong Kong b) Curiosity (2012) c) Involvement d) Recreation e) Grade f) Instrumentalism g) Social-family h) Social-peer Kondo-Brown 123 college L2 Chinese, a) Extrinsic Value (2009) Korean, and Japanese b) Intrinsic Involvement students in the U.S. c) Motivational Lack d) Reading Efficacy Mori (2002) 447 college EFL a) Intrinsic Value of Reading students in Japan b) Extrinsic Utility Value of Reading c) Importance of Reading d) Reading Efficacy Mori (2004) 100 college EFL a) Intrinsic Value students in Japan b) Attainment Value c) Negative Intrinsic Value in Novels Takase (2007) 219 high school EFL a) Intrinsic Motivation for L1 Reading students in Japan b) Intrinsic Motivation for L2 Reading c) Parents’ Involvement in and Family Attitudes toward Reading d) Entrance Exam-Related Extrinsic Motivation e) Fondness for Written Materials f) Internet-Related Instrumental Motivation and Negative Attitude toward Extensive Reading Note. Huang’ (2006) factors that motivate L2 students to read were excluded from Table 1 because of their situational nature. Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 153 Relationships between Motivation and Reading Behavior s Understanding the nature of reading motivation—just like the L1 and L2 studies above have attempted—is essential for preparing researchers to investigate the relationships between students’ motivational tendencies and reading development. Research with schoo-al ge L1 readers indicates that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation both positively relate to reading amount (e.g., Guthrie, Wigfield, Metsala, & Cox, 1999), strategy use (Lau & Chan, 2003), and text comprehension (e.g., Lau & Chan, 2003; Unrau & Schlackman, 2006; Wang & Guthrie, 2004). Intrinsic motivation, however, appears to be a stronger indicator of the students’ larger reading amount (e.g., Wang & Guthrie, 2004; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997), better text comprehension (e.g., Lau & Chan, 2003; Wang & Guthrie, 2004), though this trend may be impacted by students’ ethnic backgrounds (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006) andp erhaps age (e.g., Konheim-Kalkstein & Van den Broek, 2008). Relationships between motivation and actual reading behaviors have been examined in several L2 studies as well. For example, positive relationships between intrinsic motivation and reading amount were found in Takase (2007), Dhanapala( 2006), and Tercanlioglu (2001), with EFL students in Japan, Sri Lanka, and Turkey. In Dhanapala (2006) and Tercanlioglu (2001), extrinsic motivation also positively correlated with reading amount, but generall yto a lesser degree. With fifth-grade bilingual students in Hong Kong, Lin, Wong, and McBride-Chang (2012) found that students’ L2 reading comprehension was predicted only by an extrinsicall-y oriented dimension (i.e., Instrumentalism). Takase (2007) found no significant correlations between motivation and text comprehension with EFL students in Japan. Overall, whereas L1 research seems to indicate close connections between intrinsicall-yoriented motivation constructs and reading outcomes, L2 research has not yielded enough evidence to support or rejetc the assertion. The studies reviewed above illustrate two points. Firstly, L2 reading motivation is mul-ti dimensional and understanding this mult-idimensional nature of motivation enables researchers to examine the relationships between motivation andr eading behavior. Understanding such relationships, in turn, can assist researchers, teachers, and administrators in designing L2 reading instruction that nurtures student motivation in effective ways. Secondly, the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation appear to be a useful way to characterize L2 readers’ motivation . Current research on L2 reading motivation—which has been almost exclusively conducted in foreign language settings—is still in its early stages. One obvious gap is the lack of reseacrh on adult English as a second language (ESL) students whose primary purpose for studying their L2 is academic success in North American university contexts. As mentioned, the need for these students to become advanced English readers cannot be overemphaiszed. Thus, the role that motivation might play in their successful L2 reading development must be thoroughly examined. The present study attempted to fill this gap . Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 154 Research Question The following major research question was posed in the study: What aer the factors that characterize L2 reading motivation of pos-tsecondary students studying in North American EAP settings? In this study, the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) that underlie Wang andG uthrie’s (2004) model of L1 reading motivation were used to explain the identified factors. The present study involved three phases. The purpose of the first phase was to develop a questionnaire that would allow the researcher to reliably measure studnets’ L2 reading motivation. A revised questionnaire was then administered during the second phase, in order to identify the factor structure of L2 reading motivation. The purpose of the third phase was to examine the stability of the identified factors. Phase 1: Pilot Study During the first phase, an L2 reading motivation questionnaire was developed using the intrinsic and extrinsic L1 reading motivation constructs proposed in Wang and Guthrie (2004). The questionnaire was piloted with a group of students, and then revised. Methods Participants In this phase of the study, 172 ESL students studying in U.S. pos-tsecondary institutions (86 males, 85 females, 1 unknown) participated. Their ages ranged from 18 to 59 years oldM ( = 23.6). The participants were from 31 different countries and spoke 22 different languages as their L1 (see Table 2). Most participants (n =152) were recruited from among students enrolled in English language programs at five U.S. colleges and universities. The remaining particpiants (n = 20) were students enrolled in undergraduate or graduate mainstream classes at two of the five institutions. Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 155 Table 2. Participants’ demographic background (pilot study ) Background Frequency Percent Country of origin China 51 30.0 South Korea 37 21.8 Saudi Arabia 25 14.7 Japan 9 5.3 a Other 50 28.2 L 1 Chinese 57 33.5 Korean 37 21.8 Arabic 25 14.7 Spanish 21 12.4 Japanese 9 5.3 b Other 23 12.3 a Fewer than 9 students (5%) were from each of the remaining 27 countries. b Fewer than 9 students (5%) spoke each of the remaining 17 languages. Instrument To measure L2 reading motivation for this study, a questionnaire was created based on the Motivation for Reading Questionnaire (MRQ) used in Wang and Guthrie (2004). The MRQ is considered to be the most comprehensive motivation measure currently available for L1 readers (Lau, 2004; Lin et al., 2012). The instrument developed for the current study, the Motivation for Reading in English Questionnaire (MREQ), was designed to tap the same eight dimensions of reading motivation as Wang and Guthrie’s (2004). See Table 3 for the definition of each dimension. A majority of the MREQ items were adapted from Wang and Guthrie (2004), with modifications made to make the items appropriate for the target population of the study. Besides the items from Wang and Guthrie (2004), several new statements were added to the MREQ. These new statements were written to complement the definitions of Wang and Guthrie’s (2004) eight dimensions, while reflecting the unique situations in which EAP reading occurs. For example, a new item “I try to read in English because I need a good TOEFL score” was included to tap the Compliance dimension of L2 readers, who need to obtain sufficient scores on the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) to become fully matriculated in mainstream university classes in the U.S. The pilot version of the MREQ comprised 59 statements related to L2 reading motivation. Students were asked to respond to these statements on a four-point Likert scale (4 = a lot like me, 3 = a little like me, 2 = a little different from me, 1 = very different from me) adapted from Wang and Guthrie (2004). The 59 statements were ordered randomly, except for the first and last four items which were the shortest statements from each dimension, making the beginning and end of the questionnaire easy for students to process. The internal consistency estimate of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of each dimension ranged from .69 to .82 (see Table 4). Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 156 Table 3. Definitions of eight constructs of reading motivation used in the current stud y Underlying Dimension of Definition theoretical reading motivation concepts Curiosity Desire to learn about a particular topic of interets Intrinsic Involvement Pleasure gained from reading a well-written book, motivation article, or Web site on an interesting topic Preference for challenge Satisfaction from mastering or assimilating complex ideas in text Competition Desire to outperform others in reading Extrinsic Compliance Desire to read because of an external goal or motivation requirement Grades Desire to receive good grades and tob e favorably evaluated by the teacher Recognition Gratification from receiving a tangible form of recognition for success in reading a Social sharing Satisfaction from sharing the meanings gained from reading with peers Note. These constructs originate in Wigfield (1997) and Wang and Guthrie (2004.) a This dimension is labeled Social in Wang and Guthrie (2004). Table 4. Reliability of the MREQ (pilot study) Dimension Number of items Cronbach’s alpha Curiosity 8 0.80 Involvement 8 0.77 Preference for challenge 8 0.73 Competition 8 0.81 Compliance 7 0.70 Grades 6 0.69 Recognition 8 0.77 Social sharing 6 0.82 Procedures The participants completed the MREQ in class or outside of class, depending on the institution that they were affiliated with. Students were allowed to spend as much time as needed. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the researcher’s own institution, and all five participating language programs required no other form of permission. Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 157 Analysis Students’ responses to the 59 reading motivation statements were analyzed through an exploratory factor analysis. The steps followed to conduct this analysis were identical tot hose that will be described in detail shortly, under Phase 2. Results Results indicated that six items did not perform well in identifying the most plausible interpretation of the data. That is, with the factor solution that seemed the most appropriate to interpret the data, three items yielded communalities of lower than .20, and three additional items did not load sufficiently on any factors identified. These six items were deleted, and the remaining 53 items were retained for the next phase of the study (The factor structure found during this phase of the study is not discussed in this article because the primary purpose of Phase 1 was to identify and eliminate the MREQ items that were unlikely t operform well in the main study). Phase 2: Main Study During the second phase of the study, the revised MREQ was administered to a new group of students. Approximately 70% of the data wast hen analyzed to identify factors that characterized the students’ L2 reading motivation . Methods Participants Participants were recruited from among students enrolled in English language programs at U.S. post-secondary institutions. A total of 2,018 students, from 53 English language programs, participated in the study (1,037 males, 980 females, 1 unknown). Their ages ranged from 18 to 68 (M = 24.0). They represented 92 countries and spoke 55 different languages as their L1 (see Table 5). Based on the proficiency indices at their own language programs, the students’ L2 proficiency fell within the range ofh igh beginning to advanced. To ensure that study participants could read and respond to the MREQ appropriately, students whose L2 proficiency was lower than high beginning were not recruited for the study .Of the 2,006 students who provided information about their purposes for coming to the U.S,. 578 (28.8%) and 756 (37.5%) reported that they came to the U.S. to earn an undergraduate degree and a graduate degree, respectively. Other reasons included studying at a U.S. university as an exchange student, experiencing U.S. college life without pursuing a degree, improving English proficiency in general, and experiencing American life and culture. The 53 English language programs that participated in the study had a specialized mission to prepare ESL students for academic success at pos-tsecondary U.S. institutions (although they Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2) Komiyama: Factors underlying second language reading motivation 158 also admit students who focus on improving general English proficiency). Fift-yone programs were affiliated with four-year colleges or universities, one program was offered at a community college, and one program was part of a higher education center that housed two fou-ryear colleges and one community college. The number of student participants from each program ranged from 8 to 181. Table 5. Participants’ demographic backgrounds (main study) a Background Frequency Percent Country of origin South Korea 474 23.6 China 315 15.7 Saudi Arabia 235 11.7 Japan 193 9.6 Taiwan 159 7.9 Turkey 72 3.6 Vietnam 72 3.6 Mexico 43 2.1 Thailand 43 2.1 Libya 33 1.6 Brazil 28 1.4 Kazakhstan 27 1.3 Columbia 24 1.2 U.A.E. 24 1.2 Russia 21 1.0 b Other 247 12.4 L1 Korean 473 23.4 Chinese 462 23.0 Arabic 327 16.3 Japanese 194 9.7 Spanish 149 7.4 Turkish 73 3.6 Vietnamese 71 3.5 Thai 42 2.1 French 33 1.6 Russian 26 1.3 Portuguese 37 1.8 Kazakh 24 1.2 c Other 99 5.1 a Eight students did not report their country of origin and L1. b Fewer than 21 students (1%) were from each of the remaining 77 countries. c Fewer than 21 students (1%) spoke each of the remaining 43 language.s Reading in a Foreign Language 25(2)