P i l o t ’ s H a n d b o o k o f A e r o n a u t i c a l K n o w l e d g e F A A - H - 8 0 8 3 - 2 5 Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page i PILOT’S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page ii ii Front Matter.qxd 11/19/03 7:53 AM Page iii PREFACE The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This hand- book introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot train- ing. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual(AIM). The AIM is available online at http://www.faa.gov/atpubs. The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge codes for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This handbook supersedes Advisory Circular (AC) 61-23C, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 1997. This publication may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from http://bookstore.gpo.gov. This handbook is also available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this hand- book should be sent in e-mail form to [email protected]. AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flight information and publications. This checklist is available via the Internet at http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/ac00_2.html. iii Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page iv iv Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page v CONTENTS Chapter 1—Aircraft Structure Asymmetric Loading (PFactor).............3-25 Major Components........................................1-1 Load Factors................................................3-26 Fuselage....................................................1-2 Load Factors in Airplane Design............3-26 Wings........................................................1-3 Load Factors in Steep Turns...................3-27 Empennage...............................................1-4 Load Factors and Stalling Speeds..........3-28 Landing Gear............................................1-4 Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers.......3-29 The Powerplant.........................................1-5 VG Diagram...........................................3-30 Weight and Balance.....................................3-31 Chapter 2—Principles of Flight Effects of Weight on Structure of the Atmosphere..........................2-1 Flight Performance................................3-32 Atmospheric Pressure...............................2-2 Effect of Weight on Airplane Structure..3-32 Effects of Pressure on Density.................2-2 Effects of Weight on Stability and Effect of Temperature on Density............2-2 Controllability........................................3-33 Effect of Humidity on Density.................2-2 Effect of Load Distribution....................3-33 Newton’s Laws of Motion and Force............2-2 High Speed Flight........................................3-35 Magnus Effect...............................................2-3 Supersonic vs. Subsonic Flow................3-35 Bernoulli’s Principle of Pressure...................2-3 Speed Ranges..........................................3-35 Airfoil Design................................................2-4 Mach Number vs. Airspeed....................3-36 Low Pressure Above......................................2-5 Boundary Layer......................................3-36 High Pressure Below.....................................2-6 Shock Waves...........................................3-37 Pressure Distribution.....................................2-6 Sweepback..............................................3-38 Mach Buffet Boundaries.........................3-39 Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of Flight Flight Controls........................................3-40 Forces Acting on the Airplane.......................3-1 Thrust........................................................3-2 Chapter 4—Flight Controls Drag..........................................................3-3 Primary Flight Controls.................................4-1 Weight.......................................................3-5 Ailerons....................................................4-1 Lift............................................................3-6 Adverse Yaw.............................................4-2 Wingtip Vortices............................................3-6 Differential Ailerons.............................4-2 Ground Effect................................................3-7 Frise-Type Ailerons..............................4-2 Axes of an Airplane.......................................3-8 Coupled Ailerons and Rudder..............4-3 Moments and Moment Arm..........................3-9 Elevator.....................................................4-3 Design Characteristics...................................3-9 T-Tail.........................................................4-3 Basic Concepts of Stability....................3-10 Stabilator...................................................4-4 Static Stability........................................3-10 Canard.......................................................4-5 Dynamic Stability...................................3-11 Rudder......................................................4-5 Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)............3-11 V-Tail........................................................4-6 Lateral Stability (Rolling)......................3-14 Secondary Flight Controls.............................4-6 Vertical Stability (Yawing).....................3-15 Flaps..........................................................4-6 Free Directional Oscillations Leading Edge Devices..............................4-7 (Dutch Roll)...........................................3-16 Spoilers.....................................................4-7 Spiral Instability.....................................3-16 Trim Systems............................................4-8 Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers..3-17 Trim Tabs..............................................4-8 Forces in Turns.......................................3-17 Balance Tabs.........................................4-8 Forces in Climbs.....................................3-19 Antiservo Tabs......................................4-8 Forces in Descents..................................3-19 Ground Adjustable Tabs.......................4-9 Stalls............................................................3-20 Adjustable Stabilizer............................4-9 Basic Propeller Principles...........................3-21 Torque and PFactor................................3-23 Chapter 5—Aircraft Systems Torque Reaction......................................3-23 Powerplant.....................................................5-1 Corkscrew Effect....................................3-24 Reciprocating Engines..............................5-1 Gyroscopic Action..................................3-24 Propeller....................................................5-2 v Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page vi Fixed-Pitch Propeller............................5-3 Turbojet...............................................5-30 Adjustable-Pitch Propeller....................5-4 Turboprop...........................................5-30 Induction Systems....................................5-5 Turbofan.............................................5-30 Carburetor Systems..............................5-5 Turboshaft...........................................5-31 Mixture Control................................5-5 Performance Comparison...................5-31 Carburetor Icing................................5-6 Turbine Engine Instruments...................5-31 Carburetor Heat................................5-7 Engine Pressure Ratio........................5-32 Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge..5-8 Exhaust Gas Temperature...................5-32 Outside Air Temperature Gauge.......5-8 Torquemeter........................................5-32 Fuel Injection Systems.........................5-8 N1 Indicator........................................5-32 Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers....5-9 N2 Indicator........................................5-32 Superchargers.......................................5-9 Turbine Engine Operational Turbosuperchargers............................5-10 Considerations.......................................5-32 System Operation...........................5-10 Engine Temperature Limitations........5-32 High Altitude Performance.............5-11 Thrust Variations................................5-32 Ignition System.......................................5-11 Foreign Object Damage......................5-32 Combustion.............................................5-12 Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start.........5-33 Fuel Systems...........................................5-13 Compressor Stalls...............................5-33 Fuel Pumps.........................................5-14 Flameout.............................................5-33 Fuel Primer.........................................5-14 Chapter 6—Flight Instruments Fuel Tanks...........................................5-14 Pitot-Static Flight Instruments.......................6-1 Fuel Gauges........................................5-14 Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines........6-1 Fuel Selectors.....................................5-14 Static Pressure Chamber and Lines..........6-1 Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains.....5-14 Altimeter...................................................6-2 Fuel Grades.........................................5-15 Principle of Operation..........................6-2 Fuel Contamination........................5-15 Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Refueling Procedures......................5-16 Temperature.........................................6-2 Starting System.......................................5-16 Setting the Altimeter.............................6-3 Oil Systems.............................................5-16 Altimeter Operation..............................6-4 Engine Cooling Systems........................5-18 Types of Altitude..................................6-4 Exhaust Systems.....................................5-19 Indicated Altitude.............................6-4 Electrical System....................................5-19 True Altitude.....................................6-4 Hydraulic Systems..................................5-22 Absolute Altitude..............................6-4 Landing Gear..........................................5-22 Pressure Altitude...............................6-4 Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes.......5-22 Density Altitude................................6-5 Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes.....5-23 Vertical Speed Indicator...........................6-5 Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear..5-23 Principle of Operation..........................6-5 Brakes.................................................5-23 Airspeed Indicator....................................6-6 Autopilot.................................................5-23 Indicated Airspeed................................6-6 Pressurized Airplanes..................................5-24 Calibrated Airspeed..............................6-6 Oxygen Systems.....................................5-26 True Airspeed.......................................6-6 Masks..................................................5-27 Groundspeed.........................................6-6 Diluter Demand Oxygen Systems......5-27 Airspeed Indicator Markings................6-6 Pressure Demand Oxygen Systems....5-27 Other Airspeed Limitations..................6-7 Continuous Flow Oxygen System......5-27 Blockage of the Pitot-Static System.........6-8 Servicing of Oxygen Systems............5-28 Blocked Pitot System...........................6-8 Ice Control Systems................................5-28 Blocked Static System..........................6-8 Airfoil Ice Control..............................5-28 Gyroscopic Flight Instruments......................6-9 Windscreen Ice Control......................5-29 Gyroscopic Principles...............................6-9 Propeller Ice Control..........................5-29 Rigidity in Space..................................6-9 Other Ice Control Systems.................5-29 Precession.............................................6-9 Turbine Engines...........................................5-29 Sources of Power....................................6-10 Types of Turbine Engines.......................5-30 Turn Indicators.......................................6-10 vi Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page vii Turn-and-Slip Indicator......................6-11 Airworthiness Directives........................7-10 Turn Coordinator................................6-11 Aircraft Owner/Operator Inclinometer............................................6-11 Responsibilities......................................7-11 The Attitude Indicator............................6-12 Chapter 8—Weight and Balance Heading Indicator...................................6-12 Weight Control..............................................8-1 Magnetic Compass......................................6-14 Effects of Weight......................................8-1 Compass Errors......................................6-15 Weight Changes........................................8-2 Variation..............................................6-15 Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity......8-2 Compass Deviation.............................6-16 Effects of Adverse Balance......................8-2 Magnetic Dip......................................6-16 Management of Weight and Using the Magnetic Compass.............6-16 Balance Control.......................................8-3 Acceleration/Deceleration Errors...6-16 Terms and Definitions..............................8-3 Turning Errors................................6-16 Basic Principles of Weight and Balance Computations.............................8-4 Vertical Card Compass...........................6-17 Weight and Balance Restrictions..............8-6 Outside Air Temperature Gauge..................6-17 Determining Loaded Weight and Center of Gravity......................................................8-6 Chapter 7—Flight Manuals and Other Documents Computational Method.............................8-6 Airplane Flight Manuals................................7-1 Graph Method...........................................8-6 Preliminary Pages.....................................7-1 Table Method............................................8-8 General (Section 1)...................................7-2 Computations with a Negative Arm.........8-8 Limitations (Section 2).............................7-2 Computations with Zero Fuel Weight......8-9 Airspeed................................................7-2 Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight.............................8-9 Powerplant............................................7-2 Weight Shifting.....................................8-9 Weight and Loading Distribution.........7-2 Weight Addition or Removal..............8-10 Flight Limits.........................................7-3 Placards.................................................7-3 Chapter 9—Aircraft Performance Emergency Procedures (Section 3)..........7-3 Importance of Performance Data..................9-1 Normal Procedures (Section 4)................7-3 Structure of the Atmosphere..........................9-1 Performance (Section 5)...........................7-3 Atmospheric Pressure...............................9-1 Weight and Balance/Equipment List Pressure Altitude.......................................9-2 (Section 6)...............................................7-3 Density Altitude........................................9-3 Systems Description (Section 7)..............7-4 Effects of Pressure on Density.............9-4 Handling, Service, and Maintenance Effects of Temperature on Density.......9-4 (Section 8)...............................................7-4 Effect of Humidity (Moisture) Supplements (Section 9)...........................7-4 on Density............................................9-4 Safety Tips (Section 10)...........................7-5 Performance...................................................9-4 Aircraft Documents.......................................7-5 Straight-and-Level Flight.........................9-5 Certificate of Aircraft Registration...........7-5 Climb Performance...................................9-6 Airworthiness Certificate..........................7-6 Range Performance..................................9-8 Aircraft Maintenance.....................................7-7 Ground Effect.........................................9-10 Aircraft Inspections..................................7-7 Region of Reversed Command..............9-12 Annual Inspection.................................7-7 Runway Surface and Gradient................9-13 100-Hour Inspection.............................7-7 Water on the Runway and Dynamic Other Inspection Programs...................7-8 Hydroplaning.........................................9-14 Altimeter System Inspection................7-8 Takeoff and Landing Performance..............9-15 Transponder Inspection........................7-8 Takeoff Performance..............................9-15 Preflight Inspections.............................7-8 Landing Performance.............................9-17 Minimum Equipment Lists Performance Speeds....................................9-18 (MEL) and Operations Performance Charts.....................................9-19 with Inoperative Equipment................7-8 Interpolation............................................9-20 Preventive Maintenance...........................7-9 Density Altitude Charts..........................9-20 Repairs and Alterations............................7-9 Takeoff Charts........................................9-22 Special Flight Permits..............................7-9 Climb and Cruise Charts........................9-23 vii Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page viii Crosswind and Headwind Dew and Frost......................................10-14 Component Chart...................................9-28 Fog........................................................10-14 Landing Charts.......................................9-29 Clouds...................................................10-15 Stall Speed Performance Charts.............9-30 Ceiling..................................................10-17 Transport Category Airplane Visibility...............................................10-18 Performance................................................9-31 Precipitation..........................................10-18 Major Differences in Transport Air Masses.................................................10-18 Category versus Non-Transport Fronts.........................................................10-18 Category Performance Requirements....9-31 Warm Front...........................................10-19 Performance Requirements....................9-31 Flight Toward an Approaching Runway Requirements............................9-32 Warm Front......................................10-20 Balanced Field Length............................9-32 Cold Front.............................................10-20 Climb Requirements...............................9-34 Fast-Moving Cold Front...................10-21 First Segment......................................9-35 Flight Toward an Approaching Second Segment.................................9-35 Cold Front........................................10-21 Third or Acceleration Segment..........9-35 Comparison of Cold and Forth or Final Segment.......................9-35 Warm Fronts....................................10-21 Second Segment Climb Limitations...9-35 Wind Shifts...........................................10-21 Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Stationary Front....................................10-22 Requirements.........................................9-36 Occluded Front.....................................10-22 Summary of Takeoff Requirements........9-36 Landing Performance.............................9-37 Planning the Landing..........................9-37 Chapter 11—Weather Reports, Forecasts, Landing Requirements........................9-37 and Charts Approach Climb Requirements..........9-37 Observations................................................11-1 Landing Runway Required.................9-37 Surface Aviation Weather Summary of Landing Observations.........................................11-1 Requirements.....................................9-38 Upper Air Observations..........................11-1 Examples of Performance Charts................9-39 Radar Observations.................................11-2 Service Outlets.............................................11-2 Chapter 10—WeatherTheory FAAFlight Service Station.....................11-2 Nature of the Atmosphere...........................10-1 Transcribed Information Briefing Oxygen and the Human Body................10-2 Service (TIBS).......................................11-2 Significance of Atmospheric Pressure....10-3 Direct User Access Terminal Measurement of Atmospheric Service (DUATS)...................................11-2 Pressure..............................................10-3 En Route Flight Advisory Service..........11-2 Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Hazardous In-Flight Weather Pressure..............................................10-4 Advisory (HIWAS)................................11-3 Effect of Altitude on Flight................10-4 Transcribed Weather Broadcast Effect of Differences in Air Density..10-5 (TWEB).................................................11-3 Wind...................................................10-5 Weather Briefings........................................11-3 The Cause of Atmosphere Circulation........10-5 Standard Briefing....................................11-3 Wind Patterns.........................................10-6 Abbreviated Briefing..............................11-4 Convective Currents...............................10-7 Outlook Briefing.....................................11-4 Effect of Obstructions on Wind..............10-8 Aviation Weather Reports............................11-4 Low-Level Wind Shear..........................10-9 Aviation Routine Weather Report Wind and Pressure Representation (METAR)...............................................11-4 on Surface Weather Maps....................10-11 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs).............11-7 Atmospheric Stability................................10-12 Radar Weather Reports (SD)..................11-8 Inversion...............................................10-13 Aviation Forecasts.......................................11-9 Moisture and Temperature....................10-13 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts...............11-9 Relative Humidity................................10-13 Area Forecasts......................................11-10 Temperature/Dewpoint Relationship....10-13 In-Flight Weather Advisories................11-12 Methods By Which Air Reaches Airman’s Meteorological the Saturation Point.............................10-14 Information (AIRMET)...................11-12 viii Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page ix Significant Meteorological Vortex Behavior....................................12-13 Information (SIGMET)....................11-12 Vortex Avoidance Procedures...............12-13 Convective Significant Collision Avoidance...................................12-14 Meteorological Information Clearing Procedures..............................12-14 (WST)..............................................11-12 Runway Incursion Avoidance...............12-14 Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD).......................................11-13 Chapter 13—Airspace Weather Charts...........................................11-14 Controlled Airspace.....................................13-1 Surface Analysis Chart.........................11-14 Class AAirspace.....................................13-1 Weather Depiction Chart......................11-15 Class B Airspace.....................................13-1 Radar Summary Chart..........................11-16 Class C Airspace.....................................13-1 Significant Weather Prognostic Class D Airspace....................................13-3 Charts...................................................11-18 Class E Airspace.....................................13-3 Uncontrolled Airspace.................................13-3 Chapter 12—Airport Operations Class G Airspace....................................13-3 Types of Airports.........................................12-1 Special Use Airspace...................................13-3 Controlled Airport..................................12-1 Prohibited Areas.....................................13-3 Uncontrolled Airport..............................12-1 Restricted Areas......................................13-3 Sources for Airport Data.............................12-1 Warning Areas........................................13-4 Aeronautical Charts................................12-1 Military Operation Areas........................13-4 Airport/Facility Directory.......................12-1 Alert Areas..............................................13-4 Notices to Airmen...................................12-3 Controlled Firing Areas..........................13-4 Airport Markings and Signs........................12-3 Other Airspace Areas...................................13-4 Runway Markings..................................12-3 Airport Advisory Areas..........................13-4 Taxiway Markings..................................12-3 Military Training Routes........................13-4 Other Markings.......................................12-3 Temporary Flight Restrictions................13-4 Airport Signs..........................................12-3 Parachute Jump Areas............................13-4 Airport Lighting...........................................12-5 Published VFR Routes...........................13-4 Airport Beacon.......................................12-5 Terminal Radar Service Areas................13-5 Approach Light Systems........................12-6 National Security Areas..........................13-5 Visual Glideslope Indicators..................12-6 Visual Approach Slope Indicator........12-6 Other Glidepath Systems....................12-6 Chapter 14—Navigation Runway Lighting....................................12-6 Aeronautical Charts.....................................14-1 Runway End Identifier Lights............12-6 Sectional Charts......................................14-1 Runway Edge Lights..........................12-7 Visual Flight Rule Terminal Area In-Runway Lighting...........................12-7 Charts.....................................................14-1 Control of Airport Lighting....................12-7 World Aeronautical Charts.....................14-1 Taxiway Lights.......................................12-8 Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Obstruction Lights..................................12-8 Parallels).....................................................14-2 Wind Direction Indicators...........................12-8 Time Zones.............................................14-2 Radio Communications...............................12-8 Measurement of Direction......................14-3 Radio License.........................................12-8 Variation..................................................14-4 Radio Equipment....................................12-8 Deviation................................................14-5 Lost Communication Procedures...........12-9 Effect of Wind.............................................14-6 Air Traffic Control Services......................12-10 Basic Calculations.......................................14-8 Primary Radar.......................................12-10 Converting Minutes to Equivalent Air Traffic Control Radar Hours.....................................................14-8 Beacon System....................................12-11 Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour.....14-8 Transponder..........................................12-11 Radar Traffic Information Service........12-11 Fuel Consumption..................................14-8 Wake Turbulence.......................................12-12 Flight Computers....................................14-8 Vortex Generation.................................12-13 Plotter......................................................14-8 Vortex Strength.....................................12-13 Pilotage......................................................14-10 ix