Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-1 A right, the pilot should make all turns in the pattern to IRPORT TRAFFIC the left. PATTERNS AND OPERATIONS Just as roads and streets are needed in order to utilize When operating at an airport with an operating control automobiles, airports or airstrips are needed to utilize tower, the pilot receives, by radio, a clearance to airplanes. Every flight begins and ends at an airport or approach or depart, as well as pertinent information other suitable landing field. For that reason, it is about the traffic pattern. If there is not a control tower, essential that the pilot learn the traffic rules, traffic it is the pilot’s responsibility to determine the direction procedures, and traffic pattern layouts that may be in of the traffic pattern, to comply with the appropriate use at various airports. traffic rules, and to display common courtesy toward other pilots operating in the area. When an automobile is driven on congested city streets, it can be brought to a stop to give way to conflicting traf- The pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge fic; however, an airplane can only be slowed down. of all traffic patterns at all airports, but if the pilot is Consequently, specific traffic patterns and traffic control familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, it will be procedures have been established at designated airports. easy to make proper approaches and departures from The traffic patterns provide specific routes for takeoffs, most airports, regardless of whether they have control departures, arrivals, and landings. The exact nature of towers. At airports with operating control towers, the each airport traffic pattern is dependent on the runway in tower operator may instruct pilots to enter the traffic use, wind conditions, obstructions, and other factors. pattern at any point or to make a straight-in approach without flying the usual rectangular pattern. Many Control towers and radar facilities provide a means of other deviations are possible if the tower operator and adjusting the flow of arriving and departing aircraft, the pilot work together in an effort to keep traffic and render assistance to pilots in busy terminal areas. moving smoothly. Jets or heavy airplanes will Airport lighting and runway marking systems are used frequently be flying wider and/or higher patterns than frequently to alert pilots to abnormal conditions and lighter airplanes, and in many cases will make a hazards, so arrivals and departures can be made safely. straight-in approach for landing. Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod Compliance with the basic rectangular traffic pattern strips to major terminals having many paved runways reduces the possibility of conflicts at airports without and taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, the an operating control tower. It is imperative that the pilot pilot must know and abide by the rules and general form the habit of exercising constant vigilance in the operating procedures applicable to the airport being vicinity of airports even though the air traffic appears used. These rules and procedures are based not only on to be light. logic or common sense, but also on courtesy, and their objective is to keep air traffic moving with maximum The standard rectangular traffic pattern is illustrated in safety and efficiency. The use of any traffic pattern, figure 7-1 (on next page). The traffic pattern altitude is service, or procedure does not alter the responsibility usually 1,000 feet above the elevation of the airport sur- of pilots to see and avoid other aircraft. face. The use of a common altitude at a given airport is the key factor in minimizing the risk of collisions at airports S TANDARD AIRPORT without operating control towers. TRAFFIC PATTERNS To assure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport It is recommended that while operating in the traffic in an orderly manner, an airport traffic pattern is estab- pattern at an airport without an operating control lished appropriate to the local conditions, including the tower the pilot maintain an airspeed that conforms direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude to with the limits established by Title 14 of the Code of be flown, and the procedures for entering and leaving Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for such an air- the pattern. Unless the airport displays approved visual port: no more than 200 knots (230 miles per hour markings indicating that turns should be made to the (m.p.h.)). In any case, the speed should be adjusted, 7-1 Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-2 Crosswind LEFT-HAND TRAFFIC PATTERN Departure Entry Downwind Final Base Crosswind RIGHT-HAND Departure TRAFFIC PATTERN Entry Downwind Final Base Figure 7-1.Traffic patterns. 7-2 Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-3 when practicable, so that it is compatible with the approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing run- speed of other airplanes in the pattern. way, and at the specified traffic pattern altitude. During this leg, the before landing check should be When entering the traffic pattern at an airport without completed and the landing gear extended if an operating control tower, inbound pilots are expected retractable. Pattern altitude should be maintained to observe other aircraft already in the pattern and to until abeam the approach end of the landing runway. conform to the traffic pattern in use. If other aircraft At this point, power should be reduced and a descent are not in the pattern, then traffic indicators on the begun. The downwind leg continues past a point ground and wind indicators must be checked to deter- abeam the approach end of the runway to a point mine which runway and traffic pattern direction should approximately 45° from the approach end of the run- be used. [Figure 7-2] Many airports have L-shaped way, and a medium bank turn is made onto the base traffic pattern indicators displayed with a segmented leg. circle adjacent to the runway. The short member of the Lshows the direction in which the traffic pattern turns The base leg is the transitional part of the traffic pat- should be made when using the runway parallel to the tern between the downwind leg and the final approach long member. These indicators should be checked leg. Depending on the wind condition, it is established while at a distance well away from any pattern that at a sufficient distance from the approach end of the might be in use, or while at a safe height well above landing runway to permit a gradual descent to the generally used pattern altitudes. When the proper traf- intended touchdown point. The ground track of the air- fic pattern direction has been determined, the pilot plane while on the base leg should be perpendicular to should then proceed to a point well clear of the pattern the extended centerline of the landing runway, before descending to the pattern altitude. although the longitudinal axis of the airplane may not be aligned with the ground track when it is necessary When approaching an airport for landing, the traffic pat- to turn into the wind to counteract drift. While on the tern should be entered at a 45°angle to the downwind base leg, the pilot must ensure, before turning onto the leg, headed toward a point abeam of the midpoint of the final approach, that there is no danger of colliding with runway to be used for landing. Arriving airplanes should another aircraft that may be already on the final be at the proper traffic pattern altitude before entering approach. the pattern, and should stay clear of the traffic flow until established on the entry leg. Entries into traffic patterns The final approach leg is a descending flightpath start- while descending create specific collision hazards and ing from the completion of the base-to-final turn and should always be avoided. extending to the point of touchdown. This is probably the most important leg of the entire pattern, because The entry leg should be of sufficient length to provide here the pilot’s judgment and procedures must be the a clear view of the entire traffic pattern, and to allow sharpest to accurately control the airspeed and descent the pilot adequate time for planning the intended path angle while approaching the intended touchdown in the pattern and the landing approach. point. The downwind leg is a course flown parallel to the As stipulated in 14 CFR part 91, aircraft while on landing runway, but in a direction opposite to the final approach to land or while landing, have the intended landing direction. This leg should be right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating on the surface. When two or more aircraft are Segmented Circle approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way. Pilots should not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft that is on final approach to land, or to overtake that aircraft. The upwind leg is a course flown parallel to the land- ing runway, but in the same direction to the intended landing direction. The upwind leg continues past a point abeam of the departure end of the runway to where a medium bank 90° turn is made onto the crosswind leg. Windsock Traffic Pattern Indicator The upwind leg is also the transitional part of the traf- (indicates location of base leg) fic pattern when on the final approach and a go-around Figure 7-2.Traffic pattern indicators. is initiated and climb attitude is established. When a 7-3 Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-4 safe altitude is attained, the pilot should commence a a right-hand traffic pattern) beyond the departure end shallow bank turn to the upwind side of the airport. of the runway after reaching pattern altitude. This will allow better visibility of the runway for The crosswind leg is the part of the rectangular pattern departing aircraft. that is horizontally perpendicular to the extended cen- terline of the takeoff runway and is entered by making The departure leg of the rectangular pattern is a approximately a 90°turn from the upwind leg. On the straight course aligned with, and leading from, the crosswind leg, the airplane proceeds to the downwind takeoff runway. This leg begins at the point the air- leg position. plane leaves the ground and continues until the 90° turn onto the crosswind leg is started. Since in most cases the takeoff is made into the wind, the wind will now be approximately perpendicular to the airplane’s flightpath. As a result, the airplane will On the departure leg after takeoff, the pilot should con- have to be turned or headed slightly into the wind tinue climbing straight ahead, and, if remaining in the while on the crosswind leg to maintain a ground track traffic pattern, commence a turn to the crosswind leg that is perpendicular to the runway centerline exten- beyond the departure end of the runway within 300 feet sion. of pattern altitude. If departing the traffic pattern, con- tinue straight out or exit with a 45° turn (to the left Additional information on airport operations can be when in a left-hand traffic pattern; to the right when in found in the Aeronautical Information Manual(AIM). 7-4 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-1 N It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s ORMAL APPROACH AND LANDING recommended procedures, including airplane A normal approach and landing involves the use of configuration and airspeeds, and other information procedures for what is considered a normal situation; relevant to approaches and landings in a specific make that is, when engine power is available, the wind is and model airplane are contained in the FAA-approved light or the final approach is made directly into the Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the landing surface is firm and of ample length to information in this chapter differs from the airplane gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected manufacturer’s recommendations as contained in landing point should be beyond the runway’s approach the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s threshold but within the first one-third portion of recommendations take precedence. the runway. The factors involved and the procedures described for BASE LEG the normal approach and landing also have applications The placement of the base leg is one of the more to the other-than-normal approaches and landings important judgments made by the pilot in any landing which are discussed later in this chapter. This being the approach. [Figure 8-1] The pilot must accurately judge case, the principles of normal operations are explained the altitude and distance from which a gradual descent first and must be understood before proceeding to the will result in landing at the desired spot. The distance more complex operations. So that the pilot may better will depend on the altitude of the base leg, the effect of understand the factors that will influence judgment and wind, and the amount of wing flaps used. When there is procedures, that last part of the approach pattern and a strong wind on final approach or the flaps will be the actual landing will be divided into five phases: the used to produce a steep angle of descent, the base leg base leg, the final approach, the roundout, the must be positioned closer to the approach end of the touchdown,andthe after-landing roll. runway than would be required with a light wind or no Figure 8-1.Base leg and final approach. 8-1 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-2 flaps. Normally, the landing gear should be extended advisable to discontinue the approach, go around, and and the before landing check completed prior plan to start the turn earlier on the next approach rather to reaching the base leg. than risk a hazardous situation. FINAL APPROACH After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should start After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the the descent with reduced power and airspeed of longitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned with approximately 1.4 V . (V —the stalling speed SO SO the centerline of the runway or landing surface, so that with power off, landing gears and flaps down.) For drift (if any) will be recognized immediately. On a example, if V is 60 knots, the speed should be 1.4 SO normal approach, with no wind drift, the longitudinal times 60, or 84 knots. Landing flaps may be partially axis should be kept aligned with the runway centerline lowered, if desired, at this time. Full flaps are not throughout the approach and landing. (The proper way recommended until the final approach is established. to correct for a crosswind will be explained under the Drift correction should be established and section, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now, maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular only an approach and landing where the wind is to the extension of the centerline of the runway on straight down the runway will be discussed.) which the landing is to be made. Since the final approach and landing will normally be made into After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the wind, there will be somewhat of a crosswind the final flap setting should be completed and the pitch during the base leg.This requires that the airplane be attitude adjusted as required for the desired rate of angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting descent. Slight adjustments in pitch and power may farther away from the intended landing spot. be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the desired approach airspeed. In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, a speed The base leg should be continued to the point where a equal to 1.3 V should be used. If V is 60 knots, medium to shallow-banked turn will align the SO SO the speed should be 78 knots. When the pitch airplane’s path directly with the centerline of the attitude and airspeed have been stabilized, the landing runway. This descending turn should be airplane should be retrimmed to relieve the completed at a safe altitude that will be dependent pressures being held on the controls. upon the height of the terrain and any obstructions along the ground track. The turn to the final approach The descent angle should be controlled throughout the should also be sufficiently above the airport elevation approach so that the airplane will land in the center to permit a final approach long enough for the pilot to of the first third of the runway. The descent angle is accurately estimate the resultant point of touchdown, affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an while maintaining the proper approach airspeed. This airplane (lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all the will require careful planning as to the starting point forces are constant, the descent angle will be constant and the radius of the turn. Normally, it is recommended in a no-wind condition. The pilot can control these that the angle of bank not exceed a medium bank forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and because the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the drag (flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays a airspeed at which the airplane stalls. Since the base-to- prominent part in the gliding distance over the final turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it is ground [Figure 8-2]; naturally, the pilot does not have important that a stall not occur at this point. If an control over the wind but may correct for its effect extremely steep bank is needed to prevent on the airplane’s descent by appropriate pitch and overshooting the proper final approach path, it is power adjustments. Increased Airspeed Flightpath Normal Best Glide Speed Flightpath Figure 8-2.Effect of headwind on final approach. 8-2 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-3 Considering the factors that affect the descent angle on made to correct for being too high in the approach. the final approach, for all practical purposes at a given This is one reason for performing approaches with par- pitch attitude there is only one power setting for one tial power; if the approach is too high, merely lower airspeed, one flap setting, and one wind condition. the nose and reduce the power. When the approach is Achange in any one of these variables will require too low, add power and raise the nose. an appropriate coordinated change in the other con- trollable variables. For example, if the pitch attitude USE OF FLAPS is raised too high without an increase of power, the The lift/drag factors may also be varied by the pilot to airplane will settle very rapidly and touch down adjust the descent through the use of landing flaps. short of the desired spot. For this reason, the pilot [Figures 8-3 and 8-4] Flap extension during landings should never try to stretch a glide by applying back- provides several advantages by: elevator pressure alone to reach the desired landing • Producing greater lift and permitting lower spot. This will shorten the gliding distance if power is landing speed. not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent and airspeed should be maintained by coordinating • Producing greater drag, permitting a steep pitch attitude changes and power changes. descent angle without airspeed increase. • Reducing the length of the landing roll. The objective of a good final approach is to descend at an angle and airspeed that will permit the airplane to Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplane’s reach the desired touchdown point at an airspeed pitch behavior. The increased camber from flap deflec- which will result in minimum floating just before tion produces lift primarily on the rear portion of the touchdown; in essence, a semi-stalled condition. To wing. This produces a nosedown pitching moment; accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent however, the change in tail loads from the downwash angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled. Since deflected by the flaps over the horizontal tail has a on a normal approach the power setting is not fixed as significant influence on the pitching moment. in a power-off approach, the power and pitch attitude Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the design should be adjusted simultaneously as necessary, to features of the particular airplane. control the airspeed, and the descent angle, or to attain the desired altitudes along the approach path. By low- Flap deflection of up to 15°primarily produces lift with ering the nose and reducing power to keep approach minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon airspeed constant, a descent at a higher rate can be With: Constant Airspeed Constant Power Full Flaps Half Flaps No Flaps Figure 8-3.Effect of flaps on the landing point. No Flaps Half Flaps Full Flaps W ith: CCoonnssttaanntt APiorswpeered Flatter DescenStt eAenpgeler Descent Angle Figure 8-4.Effect of flaps on the approach angle. 8-3 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-4 up with initial flap deflection because of the lift deliberate awareness of distance from either side of increase. The nosedown pitching moment, however, the runway within the pilot’s peripheral field of vision. tends to offset the balloon. Flap deflection beyond 15° produces a large increase in drag. Also, deflection Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a beyond 15° produces a significant noseup pitching matter of practice, dependent upon how clearly objects moment in high-wing airplanes because the resulting are seen; it requires that the vision be focused properly downwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail. in order that the important objects stand out as clearly as possible. The time of flap extension and the degree of deflection Speed blurs objects at close range. For example, are related. Large flap deflections at one single point in most everyone has noted this in an automobile the landing pattern produce large lift changes that moving at high speed. Nearby objects seem to merge require significant pitch and power changes in order to together in a blur, while objects farther away stand maintain airspeed and descent angle. Consequently, the out clearly. The driver subconsciously focuses the deflection of flaps at certain positions in the landing eyes sufficiently far ahead of the automobile to see pattern has definite advantages. Incremental deflection objects distinctly. of flaps on downwind, base leg, and final approach allow smaller adjustment of pitch and power compared The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused to extension of full flaps all at one time. should be proportionate to the speed at which the airplane is traveling over the ground. Thus, as speed is When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed will decrease reduced during the roundout, the distance ahead of the unless the power is increased or the pitch attitude airplane at which it is possible to focus should be lowered. On final approach, therefore, the pilot must brought closer accordingly. estimate where the airplane will land through discerning judgment of the descent angle. If it appears If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too that the airplane is going to overshoot the desired close or looks directly down, the reference will landing spot, more flaps may be used if not fully become blurred, [Figure 8-5] and the reaction will be extended or the power reduced further, and the pitch either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’s attitude lowered. This will result in a steeper approach. tendency will be to overcontrol, round out high, and If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a make full-stall, drop-in landings. When the pilot shallower approach is needed, both power and pitch focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the attitude should be increased to readjust the descent closeness of the ground is lost and the consequent angle. Never retract the flaps to correct for undershoot- reaction will be too slow since there will not appear to ing since that will suddenly decrease the lift and cause be a necessity for action. This will result in the the airplane to sink even more rapidly. airplane flying into the ground nose first. The change of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance The airplane must be retrimmed on the final approach requires a definite time interval and even though the to compensate for the change in aerodynamic forces. time is brief, the airplane’s speed during this interval is With the reduced power and with a slower airspeed, such that the airplane travels an appreciable distance, the airflow produces less lift on the wings and less both forward and downward toward the ground. downward force on the horizontal stabilizer, resulting in a significant nosedown tendency. The elevator must then be trimmed more noseup. It will be found that the roundout, touchdown, and landing roll are much easier to accomplish when they are preceded by a proper final approach with precise control of airspeed, attitude, power, and drag resulting in a stabilized descent angle. ESTIMATING HEIGHT AND MOVEMENT During the approach, roundout, and touchdown, vision is of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of vision and to foster good judgment of height and movement, the pilot’s head should assume a natural, straight-ahead position. The pilot’s visual focus should not be fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of Figure 8-5.Focusing too close blurs vision. the airplane, but should be changing slowly from a point just over the airplane’s nose to the desired If the focus is changed gradually, being brought pro- touchdown zone and back again, while maintaining a gressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval 8-4 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-5 78 Knots Increase Angle of Attack 70 Knots Increase Angle of Increase Attack 65 Knots Angle of Attack 60 Knots Figure 8-6.Changing angle of attack during roundout. and the pilot’s reaction will be reduced, and the whole being controlled so the airplane will settle gently onto landing process smoothed out. the landing surface. The roundout should be executed at a rate that the proper landing attitude and the proper ROUNDOUT (FLARE) touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a nor- the wheels contact the landing surface. mal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually The rate at which the roundout is executed depends on rounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with, the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of and within a very few inches above, the runway. When descent, and the pitch attitude. A roundout started the airplane, in a normal descent, approaches within excessively high must be executed more slowly than what appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the ground, the one from a lower height to allow the airplane to roundout or flare should be started, and once started descend to the ground while the proper landing attitude should be a continuous process until the airplane is being established. The rate of rounding out must also touches down on the ground. be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground. When the airplane appears to be descending very As the airplane reaches a height above the ground slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a where a timely change can be made into the proper correspondingly slow rate. landing attitude, back-elevator pressure should be gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper alti- and angle of attack. [Figure 8-6] This will cause the tude and maintaining the wheels a few inches above airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired the runway until eventual touchdown. Flare cues are landing attitude. The angle of attack should be primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to con- central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead tinue settling slowly as forward speed decreases. and slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is a factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used When the angle of attack is increased, the lift is momen- most are those related to changes in runway or terrain tarily increased, which decreases the rate of descent. perspective and to changes in the size of familiar Since power normally is reduced to idle during the objects near the landing area such as fences, bushes, roundout, the airspeed will also gradually decrease. trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture. The This will cause lift to decrease again, and it must be pilot should direct central vision at a shallow down- controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the ward angle of from 10° to 15° toward the runway as angle of attack. During the roundout, the airspeed is the roundout/flare is initiated. [Figure 8-7] being decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point 10° to 15° Figure 8-7.To obtain necessary visual cues,the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle. 8-5 Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-6 of visual interception with the runway to move TOUCHDOWN progressively rearward toward the pilot as the airplane The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in onto the landing surface. The roundout and touchdown assessing the rateof altitude loss. Conversely, forward should be made with the engine idling, and the airplane movement of the visual interception point will indicate at minimum controllable airspeed, so that the airplane an increase in altitude, and would mean that the pitch will touch down on the main gear at approximately angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an over stalling speed. As the airplane settles, the proper flare. Location of the visual interception point in landing attitude is attained by application of whatever conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby back-elevator pressure is necessary. off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of appearance of height above the runway ahead of the Some pilots may try to force or fly the airplane onto airplane (in comparison to the way it looked when the the ground without establishing the proper landing airplane was taxied prior to takeoff) is also used to attitude. The airplane should never be flown on judge when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway with excessive speed. It is paradoxical that the runway. the way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the airplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground as The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach long as possible with the elevators. In most cases, is considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the attain the proper landing attitude before touching ground, the airplane will still be settling too fast for down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch a gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must be change when flaps are fully extended. Since the round- retarded by further back-elevator pressure. Since out is usually started at approximately the same height the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and above the ground regardless of the degree of flaps is settling, this added back-elevator pressure will used, the pitch attitude must be increased at a faster only slow up the settling instead of stopping it. At rate when full flaps are used; however, the roundout the same time, it will result in the airplane touching should still be executed at a rate proportionate to the the ground in the proper landing attitude, and the airplane’s downward motion. main wheels touching down first so that little or no weight is on the nosewheel. [Figure 8-8] Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the elevator control should not be pushed forward. If too much back-elevator pressure has been exerted, this After the main wheels make initial contact with the pressure should be either slightly relaxed or held ground, back-elevator pressure should be held to constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some maintain a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle braking, and to hold the nosewheel off the ground until slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink, or a stall, all the airplane decelerates. As the airplane’s momentum of which would result in a hard, drop-in type landing. decreases, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to allow the nosewheel to gently settle onto the It is recommended that the student pilot form the habit runway. This will permit steering with the nosewheel. of keeping one hand on the throttle throughout the At the same time, it will cause a low angle of attack approach and landing, should a sudden and unexpected and negative lift on the wings to prevent floating or hazardous situation require an immediate application skipping, and will allow the full weight of the airplane of power. to rest on the wheels for better braking action. Near-Zero Rate of Descent 15 Feet 2 to 3 Feet 1 Foot Figure 8-8.A well executed roundout results in attaining the proper landing attitude. 8-6