Western University ABSTRACT This dissertation explores the working-lives of unemployed and underemployed teachers in the Canadian province of Ontario. Over the past decade, the number of new teachers unable to secure employment within the teaching profession in Ontario has continued to grow. As the oversupply of teachers is expected to persist, an extremely competitive labour market has made the position of being an un(der)employed teacher increasingly “precarious” (Ontario College of Teachers, 2014, 2015). However, such concerns must also be examined within the context of the contemporary world of work and society. Standing’s (2011) understanding of precarious work and the precariat provides a theoretical and conceptual framework from which to further explore and interrogate the experiences of un(der)employed teachers in relation to work, employment, unemployment, underemployment and precarity today. Through a qualitative study of 24 teachers, the working-lives of un(der)employed teachers are examined—specifically in relation to issues of precarious work, control, identity and emotion. Teachers revealed that precarious work and precarity have both become common features of, and in, their work and lives as they navigate the labour market in Ontario. Moreover, their work, employment relationships and social relations with teaching appear to be distinctive from those in more traditional permanent teaching positions. For all of these teachers, the inability to secure full-time, permanent employment in a crowded teacher labour market was a shared experience. However, their challenges with un(der)employment were not homogeneous, nor did they experience precarity in the same manner. Changes in the nature of teaching work and employment reveal the numerous ways in which many teachers’ working-lives have changed in Ontario and warrant further consideration for issues surrounding educational equity, access and st quality in the 21 century. Keywords: teachers; work; employment; unemployment; underemployment; precarious; precarious work i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Before entering the faculty of education at Western University, I was provided the insightful advice that I should make it my business to meet Katina Pollock when I arrived. By chance, we soon met and became colleagues together on a number of projects. As a supervisor, her efforts in bringing this research to fruition must be acknowledged first and foremost, along with the wisdom and continuous support she provided throughout my graduate journey. All of her future students should know that they are in exceptionally capable hands. Thank you to the numerous faculty members who pushed my thinking in new directions. I would like to personally thank Rebecca Coulter for her insightful advice and support with inception of this research idea and throughout my doctoral undertaking. Many thanks to Greg Dickinson for his suggestions to improve the early stages of the thesis, as well as to Melody Viczko for reading the thesis as it reached its final stages, and for providing several noteworthy suggestions for improvement. A special thanks to all those who took the time to review and critically examine my work—Peter Sawchuk, Bill Irwin, Gus Riveros and Michael Kehler—your perceptive comments, questions and suggestions for improvement are not only acknowledged but also greatly appreciated. I must also express my gratitude to all of my friends and critical colleagues who provided both stimulating conservation and timely distraction whenever necessary. Finally, thank you to all of the teachers who lent their time and voices to this thesis and whose stories are shared within these pages. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to all of my M’s — IM, EM, JM, MP & AM — thank you for being the very embodiments of kindness, support and love. Without you, none of this would be possible. iii “Why are so many out of work, when there is so much work to be done?” iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. iii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xii LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................ viii ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. ix CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 Background to the Study ........................................................................................ 1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 3 Positionality ............................................................................................................ 6 Research Significance .............................................................................................. 8 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 12 Dissertation Outline .............................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER II – TEACHER EMPLOYMENT & UNEMPLOYMENT IN ONTARIO .................... 16 Teacher Employment in Ontario ........................................................................... 16 Teacher Unemployment in Ontario ...................................................................... 20 Teacher Un(der)employment & Precarious Employment .................................... 29 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................. 34 CHAPTER III – PRECARIOUS WORK & EMPLOYMENT .................................................. 35 The Changing Nature of Work .............................................................................. 35 Defining Precarious Employment ......................................................................... 38 Dimensions of Precarious Employment ................................................................ 40 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER IV – CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................ 52 Exploring Precarity ................................................................................................ 52 Precarity & Worker Subjectivity ........................................................................... 54 Un(der)employed Teachers & Precarity ............................................................... 57 The Precariat & The Study of Un(der)employed Teachers ................................... 58 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................. 69 CHAPTER V – METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 70 Critical Social Research ......................................................................................... 70 Qualitative Inquiry ................................................................................................ 71 Locating Un(der)employed Teachers .................................................................... 73 Interviewing Un(der)employed Teachers ............................................................. 75 Demographic Profile of Participants ..................................................................... 78 Analyzing Interviews ............................................................................................. 79 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................. 80 v CHAPTER VI – FINDINGS ............................................................................................ 81 Un(der)employed Teachers & Precarious Work ................................................... 81 Un(der)employed Teachers & Control ................................................................ 104 Un(der)employed Teachers & Occupational Identity ......................................... 119 Un(der)employed Teachers & Emotion .............................................................. 138 CHAPTER VII – DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 154 The Precarious Work of Un(der)employed Teachers ......................................... 154 The Control of Un(der)employed Teachers ........................................................ 162 The Occupational Identity(ies) of Un(der)employed Teachers .......................... 168 The Emotional Labour of Un(der)employed Teachers ....................................... 174 CHAPTER VIII – CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 182 Revisiting the Research ....................................................................................... 182 Future Research Directions ................................................................................. 186 Theoretical Contributions ................................................................................... 187 Implications for Policy & Practice ....................................................................... 188 Addressing Teacher Un(der)employment .......................................................... 191 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 197 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 202 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 231 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure I The Employment Arrangements of Teachers in Ontario Public Schools .......................... 20 Figure II Teacher Employment and Ontario College of Teachers Membership (1997-2014) ........ 26 Figure III Student Enrolment in Ontario’s Public Schools (1997-2014) ........................................... 30 Figure IV Conceptual Framework: Exploring the Working-Lives of Un(der)employed Teachers .... 61 vii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Interview Guide ............................................................................................................... 231 Appendix B Letter of Information ...................................................................................................... 232 Appendix C Letter of Consent ............................................................................................................ 234 Appendix D Letter to Teacher Federations ........................................................................................ 235 Appendix E Research Poster .............................................................................................................. 236 Appendix F Ethical Approval .............................................................................................................. 237 Appendix G Curriculum Vitae ............................................................................................................. 238 viii ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS AEFO l’Association des enseignantes et des enseignants franco-ontariens AQ Additional Qualification EA Educational Assistant ECE Early Childhood Educator ETFO Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario EI Employment Insurance EQAO Education Quality and Accountability Office FDK Full-Day Kindergarten FTE Full-Time Equivalent FTPC Full-Time Permanent Contract IEP Individual Education Plan LTO Long-Term Occasional MOE Ministry of Education NTIP New Teacher Induction Program OCT Ontario College of Teachers OECTA Ontario English Catholic Teachers’ Association OTF Ontario Teachers’ Federation OTPP Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan OSSTF Ontario Secondary School Teachers’ Federation PTPC Part-Time Permanent Contract STO (OT) Short-Term Occasional (Occasional Teacher) ix