Exploring the relationship between mindfulness and the abilities of mixed martial arts fighters: A cognitive approach. by ANDLEY (I-TA) WU A mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MASTERS IN RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGY in the DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SUPERVISOR: Prof. David Maree June, 2016 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Abstract As mindfulness is often synonymous with equanimity, the intensity of competitive mixed martial arts serves as an ideal domain in exploring the underlying cognitive process of mindfulness in enhancing performance. Within the past two decades, interest has peaked in the positive outcomes that mindfulness produces in alleviating negative symptoms in health and clinical settings. Little research exists however in exploring the cognitive processes involved in producing the potential benefits of performance enhancement. The aim of the study was to gain a better understanding of the underlying cognitive processes involved in the workings of mindfulness; exploring whether increased levels of mindfulness would be positively correlated with increased martial arts ability. Using correlational analysis and standard multivariate regression, the participating fighters’ (n=46) levels of mindfulness were analysed in relation to their mixed martial artist’s ability. Results from correlational analysis showed that overall mindfulness was positively correlated with mixed martial arts ability, as a result confirming the study’s primary hypothesis. Results from standard multivariate regression further identified a fighter’s age as being a significant predictor for mixed martial arts ability. Key Terms Mindfulness, Cognition, Mixed martial arts, Performance enhancement, Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my most heartfelt appreciation for my supervisor Prof David Maree for the countless times he has supported and encouraged me throughout my academic career. Without his patience and guidance I would not be where I am today. Secondly, I would like to thank all the fighters and all the martial arts gyms for participating in the current study. Hopefully you have all learned as much from me, as I have from you. Especially Master Kru Maria da Silva, Kru Joanne Riley, Kru Jonathon Lee and Kru Scott Randall from my own gym - Tiger Dragon Muay Thai Boran Academy. Last but not least, the completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the love and patience from my family (especially my mother) and friends. Thank you all for your unconditional support. ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Aims of Study ................................................................................................................. 2 1.3 Operationalising Mindfulness and Mixed Martial Arts ................................................... 3 1.4 Motivation for Research .................................................................................................. 5 1.5 Outline of Remaining Chapters ....................................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ........... ........................................................................................................... 9 2.2 The Cognitive Approach .................................................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Cognitive Approach to Mindfulness ....................................................................... 12 2.3 Historical Ties between Mindfulness and Martial Arts ................................................. 15 2.4. Mindfulness and the Abilities of Mixed Martial Artists ............................................... 17 2.4.1 The Essential Cognitive Processes Affecting Athletic Performance ...................... 17 2.4.2 Mindfulness Training on Cognitive Functioning (Training on Cognition) ............ 22 2.4.3 Mindfulness and Cognitive Rigidity ....................................................................... 25 2.4.4 Mindfulness and Affect Regulation ........................................................................ 27 2.5. Mindfulness and Physiological Functioning ................................................................. 28 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa 2.5.1 Mindfulness and Physiology ................................................................................... 28 2.5.2 Mindfulness and Arousal Regulation...................................................................... 30 2.5.3 Mindfulness and the Regulation of Pain ................................................................. 32 2.5.4 Effect of Age and Gender on Mindfulness ............................................................. 33 2.6. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 3: Research Methodology........................................................................................... 36 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 36 3.2. Research Design............................................................................................................ 36 3.3. Sampling ....................................................................................................................... 37 3.4. Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 37 3.5. Instrumentation ............................................................................................................. 38 3.5.1 Freidburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) ................................................................ 39 3.5.2 Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) ................................................. 39 3.5.3. Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness (KIMS) ........................................................ 40 3.5.4 Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale Revised (CAMS-R) .......................... 41 3.5.5. Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS) ........................................................................ 41 3.5.6 Southampton Mindfulness Scale (SMQ) ................................................................ 42 3.5.7 Philadelphia Mindfulness Questionnaire (PHLMS) ............................................... 43 3.5.8 Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) ..................................................... 43 3.6. Validity and Reliability of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire ........................ 45 3.7. Measure of Mixed Martial Arts Ability ........................................................................ 48 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa 3.8. Research Hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 48 3.9. Statistical Analysis Procedure ....................................................................................... 49 3.10. Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 50 3.11. Summary ..................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 4: Results .................................................................................................................... 52 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 52 4.2. Description of Sample................................................................................................... 52 4.3. Description of Test Results ........................................................................................... 55 4.3.1 Test of Normality .................................................................................................... 57 4.4. Reliability of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire ............................................. 58 4.5. Relationship between Variables .................................................................................... 59 4.5.1 Standard Multiple Regression ................................................................................. 60 4.6. Non-Significant Results ................................................................................................ 64 4.6.1 Comparison between the Five Facets of Mindfulness with Various Age Groups .. 64 4.6.2 Comparison of Overall Mindfulness Score between Genders ................................ 65 4.7 Summary of Results ....................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 5: Discussion of Results ............................................................................................. 68 5.1. Summary of the Study .................................................................................................. 68 5.2. Results in Relation to Hypothesis ................................................................................. 68 5.2.1 The Relationship between Mindfulness and Martial Arts Ability .......................... 68 5.2.2 Mixed Martial Arts Training and the Facets of Mindfulness ................................. 69 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa 5.3. Results in Context of Current Literature ....................................................................... 69 5.4. Mindfulness Differences across Age Groups, Genders, and Ethnicities ...................... 73 5.5. Practical Implications of Research Findings................................................................. 74 5.6. Researcher’s Experiences ............................................................................................. 75 5.7. Limitations .................................................................................................................... 76 5.8. Recommendations for Future Research ........................................................................ 78 5.9. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 80 References ............................................................................................................................ 82 Appendix A: Information sheet, Informed Consent Form and Demographics Questionnaire 94 Appendix B: Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire ............................................................... 99 Appendix C: P-P and Scatter Plots ........................................................................................ 104 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa List of Tables Table 5.1: Gender of Participants ............................................................................................ 53 Table 5.2: Ethnicity of Participants ......................................................................................... 53 Table 5.3: Home Language of Participants.............................................................................. 54 Table 5.4: Educational Background of Participants ................................................................ 54 Table 5.5: Marital Status of Particpants ................................................................................... 55 Table 5.6: Means, Standard Deviation, Skewness and Kurtosis values of Variables .............. 56 Table5.7: Test of Normality ..................................................................................................... 57 Table 5.8: Internal consistency of reliability of the FFMQ ..................................................... 58 Table 5.9: Non-Parametric (rho) Correlation between Fight Ratio, Duration of Training, Overall Mindfulness and the Five Facets of Mindfulness ....................................................... 60 Table 5.10: ANOVA ................................................................................................................ 61 Table 5.11: Model Summary ................................................................................................... 61 Table 5.12: Evaluation of Independent Variables .................................................................... 62 Table 5.13: Age Group and Mindfulness ................................................................................. 64 Table 5.14: Correlation between Age groups and Mindfulness .............................................. 65 Table 5.15: Difference in Mindfulness between Genders ....................................................... 66 Table 5.16: Gender and Mindfulness ....................................................................................... 66 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa List of Figures Figure 2.1. A cognitive model of mindfulness ........................................................................ 14 Figure 2.2. Duck or rabbit? ...................................................................................................... 26 ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction The ability to master and manifest martial arts techniques into physical actions requires dedicated psychological and physical training involving the use of cognitive systems such as one’s executive functions (which includes attention, working memory, affect control, mental imagery, problem-solving, planning, and execution) (Moran, 2012). Many martial artists, however, find great difficulty in persevering over an opponent due to their inability to adapt their strategies and techniques when they encounter ‘superior’ martial artists (Lee, 2011). This is often misinterpreted as the inferiority of one’s style or strategy in comparison to one’s opponents, however, more often than not, the shortcoming arises due to the ‘fixed’ notions one has of one’s own abilities and strategies that result in the defeat. The focus of the present study is thus to explore the relationship between the possible enhancements to one’s cognitive processes achieved through mindfulness, and how this may possibly equate to enhancing the ability of a mixed martial artist. It is suggested by Lee (2011) that removing the unnecessary components in one’s martial arts abilities (such as negative affect, inattention, etc.) and improving the adaptability (i.e. through enhancing one’s executive functions) to one’s opponent and situation, will likely be the most efficient way to increase the chances of victory in competitive mixed martial arts. The process of mindfulness and the cognitive enhancements that follow as a result of its practice forms the primary variable under investigation in this study. Mindfulness is said to allow one to ‘decenter’ oneself, which is to remove or distance oneself from negative/problematic emotions and thoughts (such as the inability to ©© UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff PPrreettoorriiaa