< < < The market leading adaptive study tool proven to strengthen memory recall, increase class retention and boost grades. < Moves students beyond memorizing < Allows instructors to align content with their goals < Allows instructors to spend more time teaching higher level concepts < TThhee ffiirrsstt——aanndd oonnllyy——aaddaappttiivvee rreeaaddiinngg eexxppeerriieennccee ddeessiiggnneedd to transform the way students read. < Engages students with a personalized reading experience < Ensures students retain knowledge An adaptive course preparation tool that A learning system that continually adapts and quickly and efficiently helps students prepare provides learning tools to teach students the for college level work. concepts they don’t know. < < Levels out student knowledge Adaptively provides learning resources < < Keeps students on track A time management feature ensures students master course material to complete their assignments by the due date WWW.LEARNSMARTADVANTAGE.COM rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 1 11/5/13 12:29 PM About the Cover This photograph by Michael Collier shows a beautifully stark, sparsely populated landscape north of Capitol Reef National Park in central Utah. The area has an arid climate and receives less than 20 cm (eight inches) of rain every year, sometimes in cloudbursts like the one captured in the photograph. During such a storm, roads become impassable, and the nearby, aptly named Muddy Creek swells with flashfloods. Over time, rainfall has eroded the tilted Jurassic sedimentary layers in the foreground, gradually lowering their surface. The two mountains in the center of the picture—Hebes, the sloping mountain in front of the rain, and Cedar Mountain, behind the rain—are capped with horizontal layers of igneous rock. These rocks formed when magma was injected between the layers four million years ago, when the surface stood about a kilometer higher than it does today. These igneous rocks are much more resistant to erosion than the reddish and white sedimentary layers; as a result, the two mountains remain standing, while the surrounding surface has been lowered. The present-day scene represents a single snapshot into a continuously evolving landscape, reflecting the interplay between the land surface, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Michael Collier’s photography is featured in textbooks, maga- zines, and a series of beautiful books showing landscapes from the air. His books have been about various national parks, climate change, the San Andreas Fault, Alaskan glaciers, and other geo- graphic locations. II rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 2 11/7/13 8:05 AM STEPHEN J. REYNOLDS Arizona State University ROBERT V. ROHLI Louisiana State University JULIA K. JOHNSON Arizona State University PETER R. WAYLEN University of Florida MARK A. FRANCEK Central Michigan University eeexxxppplllooorrriiinnnggg physical gggggeeeeeooooogggggrrrrraaaaappppphhhhhyyyyy CYNTHIA C. SHAW Lead Illustrator, Art Director rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 3 11/5/13 12:29 PM EXPLORING PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 ISBN 978–0–07–809516–0 MHID 0–07–809516–6 Senior Vice President, Products & Markets: Kurt L. Strand Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Marty Lange Vice President, Content Production & Technology Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Managing Director: Thomas Timp Brand Manager: Michelle Vogler Director of Development: Rose M. Koos Product Developer: Jodi Rhomberg Director of Digital Content: Andrea M. Pellerito, Ph.D. Marketing Manager: Matthew Garcia Director, Content Production: Terri Schiesl Content Project Manager: Sandy Wille Buyer: Nicole Baumgartner Designer: Matthew Backhaus Cover Image: Front: Rain Storm above Muddy Creek near Cedar Mountain, Utah . Michael Collier Back: . Robert Daly / age fotostock Senior Content Licensing Specialist: Lori Hancock Layout: Stephen J. Reynolds, Julia K. Johnson, Cynthia C. Shaw, and Lachina Publishing Services Compositor: Lachina Publishing Services Typeface: 9/10.5 Avenir LT Std Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been requested from the Library of Congress. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 4 11/7/13 11:21 AM BRIEF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ........................2 CHAPTER 2: ENERGY AND MATTER IN THE ATMOSPHERE .............. 34 CHAPTER 3: ATMOSPHERIC MOTION ................................................. 74 CHAPTER 4: ATMOSPHERE MOISTURE ............................................108 CHAPTER 5: WEATHER SYSTEMS AND SEVERE WEATHER .............142 CHAPTER 6: ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN-CRYOSPHERE INTERACTIONS ..............................................................180 CHAPTER 7: CLIMATES AROUND THE WORLD ................................212 CHAPTER 8: WATER RESOURCES ......................................................246 CHAPTER 9: UNDERSTANDING LANDSCAPES ................................272 CHAPTER 10: PLATE TECTONICS AND REGIONAL FEATURES ..........306 CHAPTER 11: VOLCANOES, DEFORMATION, AND EARTHQUAKES .....................................................344 CHAPTER 12: WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING ...........................384 CHAPTER 13: STREAMS AND FLOODING ...........................................416 CHAPTER 14: GLACIERS AND GLACIAL LANDFORMS ......................452 CHAPTER 15: COASTS AND CHANGING SEA LEVELS ........................476 CHAPTER 16: SOILS ..............................................................................502 CHAPTER 17: ECOSYSTEMS AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES ........534 CHAPTER 18: BIOMES...........................................................................564 V rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 5 11/5/13 12:29 PM CONTENTS Preface xiv 2.5 What Is Electromagnetic Radiation? 44 Digital Resources xxii 2.6 What Controls Wavelengths of Radiation? 46 Acknowledgments xxiv 2.7 What Causes Changes in Insolation? 48 About the Authors xxvii 2.8 Why Does Insolation Vary from Place to Place? 50 CHAPTER 1: 2.9 Why Do We Have Seasons? 52 THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL 2.10 What Controls When and Where GEOGRAPHY 2 the Sun Rises and Sets? 54 2.11 How Does Insolation Interact with the Atmosphere? 56 1.1 What Is Physical Geography? 4 2.12 What Is Ozone and Why Is It So Important? 58 1.2 How Do We Investigate Geographic Questions? 6 2.13 How Much Insolation Reaches the Surface? 60 1.3 How Do Natural Systems Operate? 8 2.14 What Happens to Insolation 1.4 What Are Some Important Earth Cycles? 10 That Reaches the Surface? 62 1.5 How Do Earth’s Four Spheres Interact? 12 2.15 How Does Earth Maintain an Energy Balance? 64 1.6 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface? 14 2.16 How Do Insolation and Outgoing 1.7 What Do Latitude and Longitude Indicate? 16 Radiation Vary Spatially? 66 1.8 What Are Some Other Coordinate Systems? 18 2.17 Why Do Temperatures Vary Between Oceans and 1.9 How Do Map Projections Infl uence Continents? 68 the Portrayal of Spatial Data? 20 2.18 CONNECTIONS: How Are Variations in Insolation 1.10 How Do We Use Maps and Photographs? 22 Expressed Between the North and South Poles? 70 1.11 How Do We Use Global Positioning Systems 2.19 INVESTIGATION: How Do We Evaluate Sites for and Remote Sensing? 24 Solar-Energy Generation? 72 1.12 How Do We Use GIS to Explore Spatial Issues? 26 1.13 What Is the Role of Time in Geography? 28 1.14 CONNECTIONS: How Did Geographers Help in the 2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil-Spill Cleanup? 30 1.15 INVESTIGATION: What Might Happen If This Location Is Deforested? 32 CHAPTER 3: CHAPTER 2: ATMOSPHERIC MOTION 74 ENERGY AND MATTER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 34 3.1 How Do Gases Respond to Changes in Temperature and Pressure? 76 2.1 What Is the Atmosphere? 36 3.2 What Is Air Pressure? 78 2.2 What Is Energy and How Is It Transmitted? 38 3.3 What Causes Pressure Variations and Winds? 80 2.3 What Are Heat and Temperature? 40 3.4 How Do Variations in Temperature and Pressure 2.4 What Is Latent Heat? 42 Cause Local Atmospheric Circulation? 82 VI rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 6 11/5/13 12:29 PM 3.5 What Are Some Signifi cant Regional Winds? 84 4.10 Where and When Is Fog Most Likely? 128 3.6 How Do Variations in Insolation Cause Global 4.11 How Does Precipitation Form? 130 Patterns of Air Pressure and Circulation? 86 4.12 How Do Sleet and Freezing Rain Form? 132 3.7 What Is the Coriolis Eff ect? 88 4.13 What Is the Distribution of Precipitation? 134 3.8 How Does the Coriolis Eff ect Infl uence 4.14 How Can Moisture Extremes Be Characterized? 136 Wind Direction at Diff erent Heights? 90 4.15 CONNECTIONS: What Caused the Recent 3.9 How Do the Coriolis Eff ect and Friction Great Plains Drought? 138 Infl uence Atmospheric Circulation? 92 4.16 INVESTIGATION: What Do Smoke Plumes 3.10 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? 94 Tell Us About Atmospheric Conditions? 140 3.11 How Does Air Circulate in High Latitudes? 96 3.12 How Does Surface Air Circulate in Mid-Latitudes? 98 3.13 How Does Air Circulate Aloft over the Mid-Latitudes? 100 3.14 What Causes Monsoons? 102 3.15 CONNECTIONS: How Have Global Pressures and Winds Aff ected History in the North Atlantic? 104 3.16 INVESTIGATION: What Occurs During Seasonal Circulation Shifts? 106 CHAPTER 5: WEATHER SYSTEMS AND SEVERE WEATHER 142 5.1 Why Does Weather Change? 144 5.2 What Are Fronts? 146 5.3 Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Form and Cross North America? 148 5.4 How Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Move and Evolve? 150 CHAPTER 4: 5.5 How Do Migrating Anticyclones Form ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE 108 and Aff ect North America? 152 5.6 What Conditions Produce Thunderstorms? 154 4.1 How Does Water Occur in the Atmosphere? 110 5.7 Where Are Thunderstorms Most Common? 156 4.2 What Is Humidity? 112 5.8 What Causes Hail? 158 4.3 How Does Specifi c Humidity Vary 5.9 What Causes Lightning and Thunder? 160 Globally and Seasonally? 114 5.10 What Is a Tornado? 162 4.4 What Is the Dew Point? 116 5.11 Where and When Do Tornadoes Strike? 164 4.5 What Happens When Air Rises or Sinks? 118 5.12 What Are Some Other Types of Wind Storms? 166 4.6 How Does the Surface Aff ect the Rising of Air? 120 5.13 What Is a Tropical Cyclone? 168 4.7 What Mechanisms Can Force Air to Rise? 122 5.14 What Aff ects the Strength 4.8 What Do Clouds Tell Us About Weather? 124 of a Tropical Cyclone? 170 4.9 What Conditions Produce Fog? 126 5.15 How Are Weather Forecasts Made? 172 VII rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 7 11/5/13 12:29 PM 5.16 How Are We Warned About Severe Weather? 174 5.17 CONNECTIONS: What Happened During Hurricane Sandy? 176 5.18 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Expect Severe Weather? 178 CHAPTER 7: CLIMATES AROUND THE WORLD 212 7.1 How Do We Classify Climates? 214 CHAPTER 6: 7.2 Where Are Diff erent Climate Types Located? 216 ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN- 7.3 What Are the Most Common Climate Types? 218 CRYOSPHERE INTERACTIONS 180 7.4 What Is the Setting of Tropical Climates? 220 7.5 What Conditions Cause Arid Climates? 222 6.1 What Causes Ocean Currents? 182 7.6 What Causes Warm Temperate Climates? 224 6.2 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 184 7.7 What Are the Settings of Mid-Latitude Climates? 226 6.3 How Do Sea-Surface Temperatures Vary from Place to Place and Season to Season? 186 7.8 What Causes Subarctic and Polar Climates? 228 6.4 What Causes Water to Rise or Sink? 188 7.9 How Does Air Quality Relate to Climate? 230 6.5 What Are the Global Patterns 7.10 How Do Air Pollution and Urbanization of Temperature and Salinity? 190 Aff ect and Respond to the Local Climate? 232 6.6 What Processes Aff ect Ocean Temperature 7.11 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 234 and Salinity in Tropical and Polar Regions? 192 7.12 What Factors Infl uence Climate Change? 236 6.7 How Are the Atmosphere, Oceans, 7.13 What Are the Consequences of Climate and Cryosphere Coupled? 194 Change? 238 6.8 What Connects Equatorial Atmospheric 7.14 How Do We Use Computers to Study and Oceanic Circulation? 196 Climate Change? 240 6.9 What Are El Niño and the Southern Oscillation? 198 7.15 CONNECTIONS: How Does the Climate 6.10 What Are the Phases of ENSO? 200 System Sustain Life? 242 6.11 Do Impacts of ENSO Reach Beyond the Tropics? 202 7.16 INVESTIGATION: What Climates and Weather Would Occur Here? 244 6.12 How Does an El Niño Start and Stop? 204 6.13 Do Other Oceans Display Oscillations? 206 6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Infl uences Climates Near the Southern Isthmus of Central America? 208 6.15 INVESTIGATION: What Oceanic and Atmospheric Patterns Are Predicted for a Newly Discovered Planet? 210 VIII rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 8 11/5/13 3:27 PM 9.9 How Are Landscapes Weathered and Eroded? 290 CHAPTER 8: 9.10 How Do Landscapes Record Transport and WATER RESOURCES 246 Deposition by Gravity, Streams, Ice, and Waves? 292 9.11 How Do Landscapes Record Transport 8.1 Where Does Water Occur on the Planet? 248 and Deposition by Wind? 294 8.2 What Is the Global Water Budget? 250 9.12 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 296 8.3 How Do We Evaluate Water Balances? 252 9.13 How Do We Determine the Ages of Events? 298 8.4 How Do Water Balances Vary Spatially? 254 9.14 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 300 8.5 How Do We Use Freshwater Resources? 256 9.15 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Natural History 8.6 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 258 of the Grand Canyon? 302 8.7 What Is the Relationship Between 9.16 INVESTIGATION: What Is the History Surface Water and Groundwater? 260 of This Landscape? 304 8.8 What Problems Are Associated with Groundwater Pumping? 262 8.9 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 264 8.10 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move and How Do We Clean It Up? 266 8.11 CONNECTIONS: What Is Happening with the Ogallala Aquifer? 268 8.12 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface Water and Groundwater in This Place? 270 CHAPTER 10: PLATE TECTONICS AND REGIONAL FEATURES 306 10.1 What Is Inside Earth? 308 10.2 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 310 10.3 Why Do Some Continents Have CHAPTER 9: Matching Shapes? 312 UNDERSTANDING LANDSCAPES 272 10.4 What Is the Distribution of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Mountain Belts? 314 10.5 What Causes Tectonic Activity 9.1 What Materials Compose Landscapes? 274 to Occur in Belts? 316 9.2 How Do Rocks Form? 276 10.6 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 318 9.3 What Can Happen to a Rock? 278 10.7 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 320 9.4 What Are Some Common Sedimentary 10.8 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 322 Rocks? 280 10.9 Why and How Do Plates Move? 324 9.5 What Are Igneous Processes and Rocks? 282 10.10 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine 9.6 What Are Metamorphic Processes and Rates of Seafl oor Spreading? 326 Rocks? 284 10.11 What Features Form at Oceanic Hot Spots? 328 9.7 How Are Diff erent Rock Types Expressed in Landscapes? 286 10.12 What Features Form at Continental Hot Spots? 330 9.8 What Controls the Appearance of Landscapes? 288 10.13 What Are Continents and How Do They Form? 332 IX rey95166_fm_i-xxviii.indd 9 11/5/13 12:29 PM