Exploring Antarctic Values Proceedings of the workshop Exploring Linkages between Environmental Management and Value Systems: The Case of Antarctica held at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand (5 December 2011) SCAR Social Sciences Action Group Edited by Daniela Liggett and Alan D. Hemmings © Daniela Liggett (2012) University of Canterbury Gateway Antarctica Special Publication Series Number 1301 2013 GATEWAY ANTARCTICA SPECIAL PUBLICATION University of Canterbury Private Bag 4800 Christchurch 8140 New Zealand www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz © EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS 2013 ISBN 978‐0‐473‐24851‐2 (Paperback) ISBN 978‐0‐473‐24852‐9 (PDF) ISBN 978‐0‐473‐24853‐6 (iBook) First published 2013 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without the permission of the publisher. COVER PHOTO BY: D. LIGGETT, 2012 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 6 1. INTRODUCTION (DANIELA LIGGETT & ALAN D. HEMMINGS) ............................................................. 7 MAP OF ANTARCTICA WITH YEAR‐ROUND AND SEASONAL STATIONS ...................................................................... 9 2. VALUE THEORY FOR AN ANTARCTIC CASE STUDY (SIRA ENGELBERTZ, DANIELA LIGGETT & GARY STEEL) ....................................................................................................................................... 10 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 10 METHOD ................................................................................................................................................... 10 AXIOLOGY – THE STUDY OF VALUE ................................................................................................................. 11 INTRINSIC VALUE ......................................................................................................................................... 12 ECONOMIC VALUE ....................................................................................................................................... 13 HUMAN VALUES ......................................................................................................................................... 13 VALUES AND DECISIONS ............................................................................................................................... 15 INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND SOCIAL NORMS ........................................................................................................ 15 VALUE CONSENSUS ..................................................................................................................................... 16 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 17 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 18 3. WILDERNESS AND AESTHETIC VALUES OF ANTARCTICA (RUPERT SUMMERSON) ............................ 22 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 22 VALUES AND THE MADRID PROTOCOL ............................................................................................................ 23 INTRINSIC AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUE ............................................................................................................ 24 WILDERNESS AND AESTHETIC VALUES............................................................................................................. 27 Wilderness Values in Antarctica ......................................................................................................... 27 Aesthetic Values in Antarctica ............................................................................................................ 29 SYNTHESIS ................................................................................................................................................. 30 Empirical Methods of Defining Wilderness and Aesthetic Values ...................................................... 30 The Impact of Human Activity and Infrastructure on Perceptions of Wilderness and how this Helps Shape a Definition of Wilderness ........................................................................................................ 35 Semantic Evaluations of Landscapes with and without Evidence of Human Activity Helping Define how We Value Landscapes ................................................................................................................. 38 Demographic Factors in Perceptions of Wilderness and Aesthetic Value. ......................................... 40 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................... 41 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 43 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 44 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 44 4. PERCEPTIONS AND OPINIONS OF ANTARCTIC VALUES IN CHILE (JUAN FRANCISCO SALAZAR) ......... 48 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 48 METHOD ................................................................................................................................................... 49 PRELIMINARY FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................... 51 a. Levels of Information and Concern about Antarctic Issues ............................................................ 51 b. Values and Perceptions of Antarctica ............................................................................................. 54 iii DISCUSSION: KNOWLEDGE PRACTICES, VALUES AND THE MEANING OF ACTIONS ................................................... 59 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................................... 65 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 67 5. ‘ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT’ AS DIPLOMATIC METHOD: THE ADVANCEMENT OF STRATEGIC NATIONAL INTEREST IN ANTARCTICA (ALAN D. HEMMINGS) .............................................................. 70 INTRODUCTION: CONTEXTS AND CONTINGENCIES ............................................................................................. 70 ‘ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT’ AND ATS INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS ................................................................ 74 STATE PRACTICE IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT .................................................................... 76 (1) CEE Application ............................................................................................................................. 77 (2) Marine Protected Areas ................................................................................................................ 78 (3) Larsemann Hills ............................................................................................................................. 79 THE PROGNOSIS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................... 81 (1) Continental Shelf ........................................................................................................................... 81 (2) Bioprospecting .............................................................................................................................. 82 (3) Tourism ......................................................................................................................................... 83 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................................... 84 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 86 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 86 6. THE UTILITY OF OFFICIAL ANTARCTIC INSPECTIONS: SYMBOLISM WITHOUT SANCTION? (JULIA JABOUR) .................................................................................................................................. 90 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 90 INSPECTION PROVISIONS UNDER ARTICLE VII OF THE ANTARCTIC TREATY ............................................................. 91 INSPECTION PROVISIONS UNDER ARTICLE 24 OF CCAMLR ................................................................................ 92 INSPECTION PROVISIONS UNDER THE MADRID PROTOCOL ................................................................................. 94 Article 14 Inspections ......................................................................................................................... 95 Frequency and Intensity of Inspections .............................................................................................. 96 IDENTITY OF INSPECTING STATES ................................................................................................................... 97 Locations of Inspections ..................................................................................................................... 97 Findings of Inspections ....................................................................................................................... 98 Great Wall Station ............................................................................................................................................................ 98 Rothera Station ................................................................................................................................................................. 99 SANAE IV ......................................................................................................................................................................... 100 KEY FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................................... 100 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 101 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 103 7. HEGEMONIC DEFINITIONS FROM THE “NORTH”: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN AS A WESTERN CONSTRUCT AND ITS APPLICABILITY TO THE SOUTH AFRICAN AND ANTARCTIC CONTEXT (SEAN BECKETT & HEIDI PROZESKY) .................................................................................................. 107 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 107 TOWARDS A BROADENING OF ENVIRONMENTAL DISCOURSE ............................................................................ 109 CONCEPTUALISING ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES ................................................................................................ 111 The Value‐Action Gap ....................................................................................................................... 112 Practice‐Based Understanding of Environmental Values ................................................................. 113 THE CONSTRUCT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ........................................................................................... 114 Taking Anthropocentric Orientations into Account .......................................................................... 114 iv Taking Experience into Account ........................................................................................................ 116 The Post‐Materialist Thesis .............................................................................................................. 116 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................................. 118 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 119 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 119 8. LINES IN THE ICE: CLASSIFYING ANTARCTIC ENVIRONMENTS (FRASER MORGAN) ......................... 124 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 124 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................................... 125 PREVIOUS CLASSIFICATIONS OF ANTARCTICA .................................................................................................. 126 ENVIRONMENTAL DOMAINS ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 126 DATA LAYERS USED IN THE EDA .................................................................................................................. 130 ENVIRONMENTAL DOMAINS OF ANTARCTICA CLASSIFICATION .......................................................................... 132 Heterogeneity of the Classification ................................................................................................... 133 CURRENT USES OF THE CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................................................ 135 Protocol Mandated Use .................................................................................................................... 135 Protected Areas Management ......................................................................................................... 135 Complementary Uses ........................................................................................................................ 136 Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................ 136 Non‐Native Species Management .................................................................................................... 136 Tourism Management ...................................................................................................................... 136 INTERPRETATION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FROM A HUMAN VALUES PERSPECTIVE ................................................ 137 Current Classification ........................................................................................................................ 137 Future Classifications ........................................................................................................................ 138 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................ 139 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 140 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 140 9. EXPLOITING THE SOUTHERN OCEAN: RATIONAL USE OR REVERSION TO TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS? (DAVID AINLEY & CASSANDRA BROOKS) ..................................................................... 143 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 151 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 151 10. CONCLUDING REMARKS: TOWARDS INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY OF ANTARCTIC VALUES (ALAN D. HEMMINGS & DANIELA LIGGETT) ...................................................................................... 155 THE CHALLENGES OF A VALUES‐ORIENTATED ENQUIRY .................................................................................... 155 THE WORKSHOP ....................................................................................................................................... 156 GAPS AND THE FUTURE .............................................................................................................................. 157 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 158 v Acknowledgements Our sincere thanks go to Gary Steel, one of the original co‐chairs of the SCAR Social Sciences Action Group and a co‐organiser of this workshop. He has put tremendous time and energy into the Antarctic values project, and we would not be where we are now without his contributions. Similarly, Emma Stewart has been instrumental in keeping this project alive, and we are grateful for her advice and for always being there to lend a hand. We are indebted to the diligent reviewers of the papers submitted to these proceedings: Kees Bastmeijer, Sanjay Chaturvedi, Christie Collis, Klaus Dodds, Andriy Fedchuk, Lorne Kriwoken, Machiel Lamers, Ewan McIvor, Steve Nicol, Jessica O’Reilly, Leslie Roberts, Ricardo Roura, Emma Stewart, Lance Van Sittert and Eric Woehler. We wish to acknowledge the members of the Steering Group of SCAR’s Social Sciences Action Group (Kees Bastmeijer, Paul Berkman, Sanjay Chaturvedi, Enrique del Acebo Ibáñez, Bernard Herber, Machiel Lamers, Elizabeth Leane, Juan Francisco Salazar, Gary Steel, Emma Stewart and Veronika del Valle), who, in numerous online meetings, have offered sound advice, much enthusiasm and have shared their ideas which helped shape this workshop. We are grateful to Gateway Antarctica for the financial and in‐kind support provided that enabled us to host this workshop at the University of Canterbury. Finally, we wish to thank the SCAR Executive (Mike Sparrow and Renuka Badhe) and the SCAR Delegates for their continued endorsement and funding. 6 1. Introduction The costs of human activities in Antarctica, not merely from an economic perspective but also from environmental, social and cultural points of view, are increasingly acknowledged. In light of the coverage (in the media and in policy discussions) of the many aspects of human endeavour in the Antarctic, policy‐makers, educators, scientists and the wider public are asked to weigh multiple costs and benefits against one another. The balancing of these costs and benefits influences a wide range of decisions. Some of these decisions will be limited to a local impact, while others may affect entire global systems, primarily via their effects on climate, culture, and international policy. The benefits of human engagement with the Antarctic are often seen through the lens of human values, i.e. notions of worth or goodness that are said to drive human behaviour and decision‐making. The values that we associate with Antarctica address a wide range of motivations: from aiming to protect Antarctic wilderness as an end in and of itself (intrinsic values), to minimising human impacts on the Antarctic environment for the purpose of safeguarding vital ecosystem services or retaining a relatively pristine scientific laboratory (extrinsic values), to realising Antarctica’s economic value through resource exploitation. Antarctic values have been encoded in legal documents, e.g. Article 3(1) of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol) highlights the importance of protecting “the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems and the intrinsic value of Antarctica, including its wilderness and aesthetic values and its value as an area for the conduct of scientific research”. Doubtlessly, such explicit statements on Antarctic values have influenced political decision‐ making and scholarly debates surrounding Antarctic governance and environmental management. However, it is yet to be established to what extent the values communicated in legal documents and policy papers (a) reflect the values actually held by Antarctic stakeholders, and (b) guide human behaviour in the field and in decision‐making on Antarctic matters. Drawing on value theory (see Chapter 1), a range of basic human values underpin the idea of ‘self’ and, as such, have a bearing on individual and collective human behaviour. This leads us to assume that values other than those mentioned in the Madrid Protocol and other Antarctic Treaty System documents influence our activities in and governance of Antarctica. In fact, the values heralded in legal documents might not even enter our own value systems, let alone be dominant values as mandated by these documents. So far, the extent and nature of values humans actually assign to Antarctica resembles a black box. Untangling the contents of this black box is meaningful and necessary exercise if we wish to understand and anticipate human engagement with and activity in the Antarctic in the future. Recognising the importance of studying human values linked to Antarctica, an action group1 was formed under the aegis of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). This action group consists of social 1 More information about the SCAR Social Sciences Action Group online (www.scar.org/researchgroups/via/). 7 scientists and humanities researchers who have the expertise and tools to lead an academic assessment of Antarctic values and who can offer different perspectives to those of stakeholders more directly involved in Antarctic science and policy. These proceedings report on the first workshop of the SCAR Social Sciences Action Group. In many respects, the workshop as well as work of the action group itself represents a peculiar project, in that it draws together a very diverse intellectual community to consider a theme which of itself does not lend itself to canalised thinking. A consideration and exploration of Antarctic values cannot be compared to a discussion of clear‐cut themes such as Antarctic protected areas or Southern Ocean fishing. As no work has been done so far in this field, we are operating without compass or map and cannot rely on existing discourse or established analytical practices. Our exploration of Antarctic values involves scholars of different disciplinary backgrounds, which is a challenge and a merit at the same time, but inevitably we end up with very different framings and understandings of value. These proceedings capture this diversity, which can be regarded as a snapshot of the complexity of some of the values or motivations driving Antarctic governance and the varying conceptualisations and interpretations of these drivers. The papers included in these proceedings are based on presentations made by scholars of Antarctic literature, geopolitics, anthropology, environmental management, tourism, and sociology during a one‐day workshop hosted by Gateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury, in Christchurch, New Zealand. Presenters were selected based on peer‐reviewed abstracts submitted to us following a call for papers for this workshop. The presenters were asked to prepare brief working papers that were distributed to all workshop participants prior to the workshop. During the workshop, the authors presented their ideas to an audience that included not only focus and discipline diversity but intellectual development ranging from students to senior academics. Then each presenter was asked to tidy up their working papers and presentations into a more formal paper which again was externally peer‐reviewed. The resulting workshop proceedings are a generalised first‐order treatment of issues around the wider theme of Antarctic values to get an inevitably diverse readership to first think about these matters. Consequently, these proceedings are not to be seen as the final word on the topic of Antarctic values – they are just the opposite: an initial exploration of the diverse understandings of this topic and a platform for more in‐depth examinations by the scholar down the line. We certainly hope that the authors’ considerations act as a stimulant to others to develop or challenge these preliminary ideas. 8 Map of Antarctica with year‐round and seasonal stations Source: Australian Antarctic Data Centre (2011) 9 2. Value Theory for an Antarctic Case Study Sira Engelbertz1, Daniela Liggett2, Gary Steel2 Introduction Antarctica is often characterized by its uniqueness. Indeed Antarctica is an unusual place, and extreme in many ways. Apart from the extreme climatic conditions, Antarctica is geographically isolated in the midst of the Southern Ocean and without any indigenous population. In a sense, we find a natural separation of nature and civilization. Nevertheless, the history of human contact with Antarctica goes back centuries. The number of people visiting Antarctica each year – whether as scientists, station personnel, commercial tourists or private adventurers – has increased enormously in recent decades. Approximately one hundred years ago, explorers such as Scott and Shackleton built first huts on Antarctica. Today, there are over 80 research stations from 29 countries spread across the continent. Some of the international research teams and operational personnel even stay in Antarctica over the winter months when temperatures drop drastically and endless darkness takes over the place. During the Austral summer, there are also around 30,000 tourists annually making their way to Antarctica through commercial tourism outfits. Moreover, the number of signatories to the Antarctic Treaty has grown from the original twelve in 1959 to fifty states today. This increased human participation disrupts the natural separation of nature and civilization, creating a direct (referring to Antarctic visits) or indirect (e.g. Antarctic policy) connection between the two spaces. This is the issue that the SCAR Social Sciences Action Group (SSAG) targets. While investigating human connections to Antarctica, the group focuses on the aspect of values as a – metaphorically speaking – bridge‐ building element. This requires a good understanding of what values are and what they mean in the Antarctic context. Against this background, the objective of this paper is to offer a theory‐ based representation of possible approaches to how values in Antarctica can be studied. Method Through the reflection of various value concepts, as they occur in different academic disciplines, it is intended to identify value‐relevant research areas and try to apply them to the Antarctic case. For this purpose, an interdisciplinary literature review on value theory forms the basis for this paper. Relevant academic disciplines include those that are traditionally engaged in value theory, such as philosophy, psychology and economics. The political science perspective is also considered in the context of the role values play in (political) decision‐ making. Due to this rather broad and diversified alignment, this paper may not discuss each 1 Gateway Antarctica, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand 2 Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand 10
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