Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series Series Editor: Mark Beeson, Professor of International Politics, Murdoch University, Australia Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific showcases new research and scholarship on what is arguably the most important region in the world in the twenty-first century. The rise of China and the continuing strategic importance of this dynamic economic area to the United States mean that the Asia Pacific will remain crucially impor- tant to policymakers and scholars alike. The unifying theme of the series is a desire to publish the best theoretically-informed, original research on the region. Titles in the series cover the politics, economics and security of the region, as well as focussing on its institutional processes, individual countries, issues and leaders. Titles include: Thomas Birtchnell INDOVATION Innovation and a Global Knowledge Economy in India Lindsay Black JAPAN’S MARITIME SECURITY STRATEGY The Japan Coast Guard and Maritime Outlaws Aurel Croissant, David Küehn, Philip Lorenz and Paul W. Chambers DEMOCRATIZATION AND CIVILIAN CONTROL IN ASIA Giovanna Maria Dora Dore, Jae H. Ku and Karl Jackson (editors) INCOMPLETE DEMOCRACIES IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC Evidence from Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines and Thailand Kelly Gerard ASEAN’s ENGAGEMENT OF CIVIL SOCIETY Regulating Dissent Felix Heiduk (editor) SECURITY SECTOR REFORM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA From Policy to Practice Brendan Howe THE PROTECTION AND PROMOTION OF HUMAN SECURITY IN EAST ASIA Jane Hutchison, Wil Hout, Caroline Hughes and Richard Robison POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE AID INDUSTRY IN ASIA Lee Jones ASEAN, SOVEREIGNTY AND INTERVENTION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Eun Mee Kim and Pil Ho Kim (editors) THE SOUTH KOREAN DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE Beyond Aid Jikon Lai FINANCIAL CRISIS AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN EAST ASIA J onathan London (editor) POLITICS IN CONTEMPORARY VIETNAM Party, State, and Authority Relations Arndt Michael INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY AND REGIONAL MULTILATERALISM Zulfan Tadjoeddin EXPLAINING COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA Claudia Tazreiter and Siew Yean Tham (editors) GLOBALIZATION AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC The Australian and Malayasian Experience Sow Keat Tok MANAGING CHINA’S SOVEREIGNTY IN HONG KONG AND TAIWAN William Tow and Rikki Kersten (editors) BILATERAL PERSPECTIVES ON REGIONAL SECURITY Australia, Japan and the Asia-Pacific Region Barry Wain MALAYSIAN MAVERICK Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times Mikael Weissmann THE EAST ASIAN PEACE Conflict Prevention and Informal Peacebuilding Robert G. Wirsing, Christopher Jasparro and Daniel C. Stoll INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT OVER WATER RESOURCES IN HIMALAYAN ASIA Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–230–22896–2 (Hardback) 978–0–230–22897–9 (Paperback) (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Explaining Collective Violence in Contemporary Indonesia: From Conflict to Cooperation Mohammad Zulfan Tadjoeddin Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, University of Western Sydney, Australia © Mohammad Zulfan Tadjoeddin 2014 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-1-137-27063-4 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978-1-349-44443-4 ISBN 978-1-137-27064-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137270641 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Contents List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Acknowledgements x List of Abbreviations xii 1 Introduction 1 Setting the context: a study of Indonesia 1 Objective and approach 5 Conflict and cooperation in post-independent Indonesia 6 A brief tour of the book 21 2 Conflict and Violence in Indonesia: A Background 23 Internal conflicts since independence 23 Crisis, transition and conflict 30 The case for the economics of conflict 35 A brief note on methodology 39 3 Secessionist (Centre–Regional) Conflicts 42 Introduction 42 The conflicts 42 The economic origins 48 The decentralization response 59 A future resource curse? 6 1 Conclusion 74 4 Ethnic Violence 75 Introduction 75 Conflict and cooperation: a framework 78 A possible element of greed 84 Methodology 90 Results 102 Discussion and conclusion 108 5 Routine-Everyday Violence 112 Introduction 112 Socio-economic development and routine violence 116 v vi Contents Population pressure and inequality 120 Decentralization and routine violence 137 Conclusion 150 6 Local Electoral Violence 153 Introduction 153 Development, democracy and electoral conflict 157 Data and methodology 162 Analysis of regression results 169 Conclusion 172 7 Conclusion 175 Main findings 175 Key policy messages 178 Some wider implications 179 Looking forward 180 Notes 183 References 202 Index 217 List of Figures 2.1 D eaths and incidents of (non-secessionist) violence in Indonesia, 1990–2003 3 2 3.1 M ap of secessionist conflicts 4 3 3.2 I nter-provincial regional income convergence, 1976–96 50 3.3 C onvergence in poverty reduction, 1976–96 51 3.4 R egional inequalities of regional prosperity and community welfare, 1996 5 2 3.5 P er capita GDP and household expenditure of Indonesia’s provinces, 1996 5 3 4.1 M ap of ethnic violence 7 7 4.2a C onverging gaps of educational attainment in Maluku, 1990–95 8 2 4.2b C onverging gaps of educational attainment in Poso, 1990–95 8 2 4.3 E ducation and consumption poverty 96 4.4 E ducation and capability poverty 97 4.5 R elative deprivation in terms of education–poverty gap 99 4.6 R elative deprivation in terms of education–poverty gap 99 5.1 R outine-everyday violence in Java, 1990–2003 113 5.2 I ncidence of routine-everyday violence in four Javanese provinces, 1990–2003 1 14 5.3 I ncome, education and routine violence in Java, 1994–2003 1 20 5.4 V iolence, income and vertical inequality 133 vii List of Tables 3.1 The four rich regions: characteristics of resources and conflict 4 4 3.2 Regional prosperity and community welfare 49 3.3 Poverty in resource-rich regions, 1976 and 1996 54 3.4 Poverty and welfare gap, 1996 and 2007 56 3.5 Total governments’ (province and districts) revenue 62 3.6 Progress in social indicators, 1999–2010 68 3.7 Annual growth of per capita RGDP, 2000–10 69 3.8 Sectoral regional GDP: tradable and non-tradable 73 4.1 Major episodes of ethnic violence in contemporary Indonesia 7 6 4.2 Convergence type 2 8 0 4.3 Permanent in-migration from Java 81 4.4 Inter-ethnic political coalitions in ethnic violence-ridden regions 8 7 4.5 Relative deprivation in terms of income–welfare/HDI gap 95 4.6 Grievance and greed models 1 03 4.7 Cooperation model 1 05 4.8 Count data regression of grievance model 107 4.9 2SLS regression of grievance and cooperation models 107 5.1 Influential districts in the provincial trend of routine violence, 2001–03 115 5.2 Determinants of routine violence in Java, 1994–2003 118 5.3 Population density by main islands, 2005 123 5.4 Gini coefficient, 1994–2003 124 5.5 Population pyramid, 2003 125 5.6 Routine violence and population pressure 130 5.7 Gini, income and violence: two-stage regression 132 5.8 Gini, income and violence: 2SLS regression 132 5.9 Joint effects of inequality and population pressure 134 5.10 Violence, population density and inequality, 1994–2003 136 5.11 Violence, GDP growth and human development, 1994–2003 1 37 5 .12 Fiscal decentralization and routine violence (A) – cross-section observation 144 viii List of Tables ix 5.13 Fiscal decentralization and routine violence (B) – panel observation 145 5.14 Relative size of the state and routine violence (A – revenue) – panel observation 146 5.15 Structure of district revenue in Java (98 districts in four provinces) 147 5.16 Relative size of the state and routine violence (B – expenditure) – panel observation 149 6.1 Districts PILKADA by hostility levels, 2005–07 167 6.2 PILKADA by cleavages of electoral hostility 168 6.3 PILKADA by timing at the peak of electoral hostility 168 6.4 Electoral hostility and socio-economic indicators, 2005 169 6.5 Determinants of electoral hostility 170