EXPERIMENTS IN EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY In this new edition of Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology, Denys A. Stocks introduces further experimental research on stoneworking in Ancient Egypt through archaeological and pictorial evidence. A further 20 years of research has been added to the original publication and the book now includes the results of experiments that test and evaluate over 250 reconstructed and replica tools, bringing alive the methods and practices of Ancient Egyptian craftworking. This practical approach to understanding the fundamentals of Ancient Egyptian stoneworking highlights the evolution of tools and techniques, and how these come together to produce the wonders of Egyptian art and architecture. A new chapter on Predynastic industrial transitions and convergence explores how the surge in technology, particularly in the expanding production of stone vessels and in the production of faience artifacts, drove the expansion of the economy of the Late Predynastic period in Egypt. Introducing the results of new research to enrich our understanding of the fundamental development of stoneworking, and other supporting technologies in Ancient Egypt, this book remains an important volume for students and researchers wishing to understand Ancient Egyptian technology and development. Denys A. Stocks is an experimental archaeologist who uses his training in mechanical engineering, together with his experience in teaching high school design and technology, to interpret Ancient Egypt’s technical capability. His research interests include the technological similarities between Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete and the Indus Valley. EXPERIMENTS IN EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt Second Edition Denys A. Stocks Cover image: The northern face of Khufu’s Fourth Dynasty Great Pyramid, the only face with a few base casing-blocks still in their original positions. © Denys A. Stocks Second edition published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Denys A. Stocks The right of Denys A. Stocks to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Routledge 2003 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-032-21766-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-21757-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-26992-2 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003269922 Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC To My Wife, Carol, and Sons, Jeffrey, Ian and Paul CONTENTS List of tables xi List of figures xii Foreword xix Acknowledgements xxi List of abbreviations xxii Predynastic and Dynastic chronology xxiii Map of Egypt xxviii Preface to new edition xxix Introduction 1 PART I Skills and tools: fledgling industrialists 5 1 Craftworking: industry’s driving force 7 Craftworking: mind over matter 7 Important tools, materials and artifacts: a brief overview 11 Experiments and their interpretation 21 2 The cutting edge 25 Copper and bronze cutting tools 25 A cluster of furnaces: the key to manufacturing expansion 35 viii Contents Hammering: the art of forceful shaping 44 Enter the bow: a power transmission device 52 Copper and bronze cutting tools: experimental manufacture and hardness tests 58 To cut, or not to cut – that is the problem 67 3 A flint for all seasons 78 Some evidence for the working of hard stones 78 Flint and chert: a brief description 86 The experiments with the flint tools 88 Tools for keeping: tools for throwing away 101 PART II High priests of industry: the state’s influence on technology 105 4 The abrasive technologists 107 Flora and technology connections 107 Abrasives and metals in use for the sawing and tubular drilling of stone 109 The sand environment in Egypt: effects on human activity 113 Drilling stones with reed tubes 115 Copper: a new material for an old purpose 116 The construction and use of the experimental Manchester saws and tubular drills 120 The Aswan sawing and drilling experiments 133 Discussion 140 5 Making stone vessels 143 Stone vessels by the thousand 143 The tomb evidence for stone vessel making 146 Analysis of the pictorial evidence 152 A twist/reverse twist drill attachment tool 154 Reconstructed twist/reverse twist drills 156 The twist/reverse twist drill tests 160 Making stone vessels in ancient Mesopotamia 161 Manufacturing a limestone barrel-shaped vase 162 Discussion 172 Contents ix 6 The development of stone sarcophagus manufacture 176 Shaping stone sarcophagi: surface decoration tools and techniques 176 Hollowing hard-stone sarcophagi interiors 179 Discussion 184 7 Master masonry fitters 187 Masonry fitters’ tools 187 Some problems confronting the mason 191 The Kahun set of rods and string 195 Some ancient uses for rods and string 197 Fitting two megalithic blocks together: a proposal 199 Friction and force: physics to the rescue 201 PART III Industrial revolution in Ancient Egypt 209 8 Theban mass-production tools 211 Early bead-making techniques 211 Six New Kingdom tombs in the Theban necropolis 216 Interpretation of the illustrations 219 Manufacture of the reconstructed tools 222 Experimental bead-drilling 226 Discussion of the experimental results 231 9 By-products from a bygone age 234 Modern by-product materials 234 Ancient faience: a brief description 234 Experimental faience manufacture 236 Discussion 239 10 Predynastic transitions and convergence 243 Evidence of Late Neolithic stone-drilling reed tubes in Egypt’s western Delta 243 The stonecutting copper tubular drill: a primary generator of Egypt’s economic strength 245 Transitions and convergence 247