War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850 Series Editors: Rafe Blaufarb (Tallahassee, USA), Alan Forrest (York, UK), and Karen Hagemann (Chapel Hill, USA) Editorial Board: Michael Broers (Oxford, UK), Christopher Bayly (Cambridge, UK), Richard Bessel (York, UK), Sarah Chambers (Minneapolis, USA), Laurent Dubois (Durham, USA), Etienne François (Berlin, Germany), Janet Hartley (London, UK), Wayne Lee (Chapel Hill, USA), Jane Rendall (York, UK), Reinhard Stauber (Klagenfurt, Austria) Titles include: Richard Bessel, Nicholas Guyatt and Jane Rendall (editors) WAR, EMPIRE AND SLAVERY, 1770–1830 Eveline G. Bouwers PUBLIC PANTHEONS IN REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE Comparing Cultures of Remembrance, c. 1790–1840 Michael Broers, Agustin Guimera and Peter Hick (editors) THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE AND THE NEW EUROPEAN POLITICAL CULTURE Gavin Daly THE BRITISH SOLDIER IN THE PENINSULAR WAR Encounters with Spain and Portugal, 1808–1814 Alan Forrest, Etienne François and Karen Hagemann (editors) WAR MEMORIES The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe Alan Forrest, Karen Hagemann and Jane Rendall (editors) SOLDIERS, CITIZENS AND CIVILIANS Experiences and Perceptions of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1790–1820 Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson (editors) THE BEE AND THE EAGLE Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806 Rasmus Glenthøj and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen EXPERIENCES OF WAR AND NATIONALITY IN DENMARK AND NORWAY, 1807–1815 Karen Hagemann, Gisela Mettele and Jane Rendall (editors) GENDER, WAR AND POLITICS Transatlantic Perspectives, 1755–1830 Leighton James WITNESSING THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS IN GERMAN Central Europe Catriona Kennedy NARRATIVES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS Military and Civilian Experience in Britain and Ireland Catriona Kennedy, and Matthew McCormack (editors) SOLDIERING IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 1750–1850 Men of Arms Ralph Kingston BUREAUCRATS AND BOURGEOIS SOCIETY Office Politics and Individual Credit, France 1789–1848 Kevin Linch BRITAIN AND WELLINGTON’S ARMY Recruitment, Society and Tradition, 1807–1815 Pierre Serna, Antonino De Francesco and Judith Miller REPUBLICS AT WAR, 1776–1840 Revolutions, Conflicts and Geopolitics in Europe and the Atlantic World Marie-Cécile Thoral FROM VALMY TO WATERLOO France at War, 1792–1815 Mark Wishon GERMAN FORCES AND THE BRITISH ARMY Interactions and Perceptions, 1742–1815 Christine Wright WELLINGTON’S MEN IN AUSTRALIA Peninsular War Veterans and the Making of Empire c.1820–40 War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850 Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–230–54532–8 hardback 978–0–230–54533–5 paperback (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Experiences of War and Nationality in Denmark and Norway, 1807–1815 Rasmus Glenthøj Postdoctoral Fellow, University of Southern Denmark and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen Researcher, University of Oslo © Rasmus Glenthøj and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen 2014 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-0-230-30281-5 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-33786-6 ISBN 978-1-137-31389-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137313898 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Contents Acknowledgements ix Historical Maps of Scandinavia x 1 Denmark-Norway and the Ideology of Patriotism 1 Between a Rock and a Hard Place 1 The Danish-Norwegian State 3 Dissatisfaction and Identity in Denmark-Norway 5 Patriotism and Fatherland 8 Society, Absolutism and Foreign Powers 12 Denmark-Norway and the Politics of ‘the Palmy Days’ 16 The Exploitation of Neutrality 20 The First Battle of Copenhagen, 1801 23 The Last Years of Peace 25 2 The Bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807 28 The Peace of Tilsit 28 The British Fleet in Danish Waters 32 Landing and Occupation 34 Fortress Copenhagen 36 Volunteers 37 The Militia and the Battle of the Clogs at Køge 37 The Besieged City 39 The Bombardment 41 Death and Destruction 44 Reactions in Denmark-Norway 45 Scapegoats 47 Collections after the Bombardment of Copenhagen 48 ‘That damned thief the Englishman’ 49 Looting at Holmen and the Loss of the Fleet 51 Reactions in Great Britain 52 The Return of the Crown Prince 53 The Defence of the Fatherland and the Function of History 53 History as a Battlefield 56 Jesus, the Patriot 57 v vi Contents 3 Scandinavian War, 1808–09 59 From Copenhagen to the River Kymme 59 The Swedish Attack on Norway 63 The Swedish–Norwegian Border War 65 D anish-Norwegian Reactions to the War with Sweden 67 Wooing and Winning the Norwegians 70 Popular Resistance in Norway 72 To Die for an Ideal 79 Occupation, Recalcitrance and Collaboration 81 An Amicable Occupation 83 Crisis and Devastation 86 T he Fall of Gustav IV Adolph and an Opportunity for Scandinavia 89 Discontent and Conspiracies 94 4 Naval and Economic Warfare 98 A New Fleet 98 Naval War 100 Imprisoned Sailors 103 Privateering 105 The Double Blockade 110 Economic Crisis and State Bankruptcy 115 Patriotic Societies 123 Corn to Norway and Criticism of Denmark 126 Famine Exploited 130 Postwar Ruin 133 The Scope of War 135 5 Internal Changes and External Threats, 1810–12 138 Respite, Discontent and Dangers 138 The Society for the Welfare of Norway 139 Norwegian Demands 141 T he First Turning Point: The Sudden Death of Crown Prince Carl August 145 T he Second Turning Point: The Second Crisis of Swedish Succession 146 Proto-Scandinavianism 150 The Annexation of Holstein 153 Resentment and Resistance in Holstein 160 Renewed Threat from Sweden 163 Contents vii The Threat from Napoleon 164 Frederick’s Absolutism and the ‘Red Feathers’ 167 Dawning Separatism in Norway 170 6 Endgames 1812–13 174 Chained to Napoleon 174 The Russo–Swedish Alliance 178 Denmark-Norway and Napoleon’s Defeat 180 Fighting Napoleon 183 Crisis in Norway 188 Sweden’s Designs on Norway 190 The Effects of Swedish Propaganda 195 Prince Christian Frederick and Norway 197 War and Defeat in Holstein 200 Room for Manoeuvre 205 7 Postlude – Freedom and Suppression, 1814–15 208 Peace in Scandinavia? 208 Danish Double-dealing? 209 Mental Mobilisation 212 The Prince’s Policy 214 When Home Is a Foreign Country 216 On the Brink of Revolution? 217 A House Divided 220 The Ghost of Reunification 223 The Struggle over Citizenship 224 T he Norwegian Constitutional Act and the National Monarchy 226 Conscription and the Will to Defend the Country 228 Contributions on the Altar of the Fatherland 229 A Free Norway or a United Scandinavia 229 Swedish Policy 233 Targeting the Common People 236 A People’s War as a Political Instrument 237 The Diplomatic Endgame 239 ‘The War of Cats’ 241 Deserters 244 Autumn in Norway 245 The New Norway 250 The Immediate Consequences of Separation 251 Denmark and the Congress of Vienna 252 viii Contents 8 Denmark and Norway after Denmark-Norway 257 War and Separation 257 A Norwegian Model 261 The Settlement of the Danish-Norwegian Estate 266 T he Norwegian View of Denmark in the Wake of the Separation 268 D anish Relations with Norwegians Shortly after the Separation 271 An Independent Language by Name or by Nature 272 The Fellowship Continued 274 1905 – The Waterloo for the Common Culture 276 Notes 279 Bibliography 295 Index 317 Acknowledgements Right from the point when the idea behind this book was conceived and sketched out over some excellent Belgian ale in Christianshavn, Copenhagen in early August 2009, we have incurred many debts. We would like to thank John Mason and Manuscripts for translating our manuscript into English from a rather chaotic blend of Danish, Norwegian and English, and also the Research Council of Norway and the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History, University of Oslo for generously funding the translation. Thanks are also due to Ruth Hemstad and Martin Austnes for very helpful comments and sug- gestions to parts of the manuscript, and to Michael Bregnsbo for shar- ing an as yet unpublished article with us. Thanks also to Mette Dahl Hansen at the Royal Library, Copenhagen for her assistance. The excel- lent scholars associated with the so-called Norwegian ‘1814 Project’ at the University of Oslo and the Danish ‘1814 Network’ at the University of Southern Denmark have provided us with many opportunities for fruitful discussion, and for this we thank them all. Last, but not least, we would like to thank Alan Forrest and Rafe Blaufarb for their encour- agement. While all these people have made invaluable contributions to the making of this book, all flaws and errors that remain are of course solely our own. This publication has received funding from the Research Council of Norway. Rasmus Glenthøj and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen Copenhagen and Oslo, April 2013 ix