FAO ISSN 2 FISHERIES AND 20 4 AQUACULTURE 70 -6 PROCEEDINGS 10 3 24 24 FAO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE PROCEEDINGS Expanding mariculture farther offshore E x Technical, environmental, spatial and governance p a challenges n d in g FAO Technical Workshop m Expanding mariculture farther offshore 22–25 March 2010 a r Orbetello, Italy ic u lt Technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges u This document contains the proceedings of the technical r e workshop entitled “Expanding mariculture farther offshore: fa r technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges” th e FAO Technical Workshop held from 22 to 25 March 2010, in Orbetello, Italy, and organized r o 22–25 March 2010 by the Aquaculture Branch of the Fisheries and Aquaculture ff sh Orbetello, Italy Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the o r United Nations (FAO). The objective of this workshop was to e – discuss the growing need to transfer land-based and coastal T e c aquaculture production systems farther off the coast and provide h n recommendations for action to FAO, governments and the ic a private sector. Offshore mariculture is likely to offer significant l, e opportunities for food production and development to many n v coastal countries, especially in regions where the availability of iro n land, nearshore space and freshwater are limited resources. The m e workshop report highlights the major opportunities and n t a challenges for a sustainable mariculture industry to grow and l, s further expand off the coast. Furthermore, it recommended that p a FAO should provide a forum through which the potential tia importance of the sea in future food production can be l a n communicated to the public and specific groups of stakeholders d g and to support FAO Members and industry in the development o v needed to expand mariculture to offshore locations. This er n publication is organized in two parts. The proceedings include a n c the workshop report, and an accompanying CD–ROM containing e c four reviews covering technical, environmental, economic and h a marketing, policy and governance issues, and two case studies on lle n highfin amberjack (Seriola rivoliana) offshore farming in Hawaii g e (the United States of America) and one on salmon farming in s Chile. ISBN 978-92-5-107381-0 ISSN 2070-6103 F A O 9 7 89 2 51 0 7 3 8 1 0 I3092E/1/09.13 Cover photograph: Fully submerged Sadco-Shelf E-Series sea cage with self-contained underwater feeding system (Courtesy of Sadco Shelf Ltd). FAO FISHERIES AnD AquAcuLTuRE PROcEEDInGS 24 Expanding mariculture farther offshore Technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges FAO Technical Workshop 22–25 March 2010 Orbetello, Italy Edited by Alessandro Lovatelli José Aguilar-Manjarrez Doris Soto Aquaculture Branch FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Rome, Italy FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2013 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 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All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence- request or addressed to [email protected]. FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/ publications) and can be purchased through [email protected]. © FAO 2013 [English edition] © FAO 2011 [Spanish edition] iii Preparation of this document This publication is the proceedings of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) expert technical workshop on “Expanding mariculture farther offshore: technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges”, held in Orbetello, Italy, from 22 to 25 March 2010 and organized by the Aquaculture Branch of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. The workshop was attended by 13 internationally renowned experts from eight countries (Canada, Chile, Denmark, Israel, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, the United States of America), representing the private sector, industry, academia, government, research organizations, and eight staff members from FAO. The focus of this workshop was to discuss the growing need to transfer land-based and nearshore aquaculture production systems farther from the coast as a result of the expected increases in human population, competition and access to land and sea along the coastal belt. This initiative attempts to collect information on the potential for global mariculture development (off the coast and offshore) by considering technical, biological, spatial, environmental, socio-economic, legal and policy issues and to identify major opportunities and challenges to act upon at all levels for the industry to expand sustainably. Furthermore, it intends to respond to the needs of the FAO Members to ensure access to adequate information on the potential for off-the-coast and offshore aquaculture, as well as, the requirements to fulfil this potential in terms of governance, research, information, investment, capacity building, relevant policies and required strategies at national, regional and global level. These proceedings are written for national authorities (e.g. governments, ministries, research institutions and the private sector) that are interested in promoting and supporting the development for off the coast and offshore aquaculture, and it attempts to provide a comprehensive review on the main issues specific to this subsector. Furthermore, the recommendations to FAO can also be very useful for consideration by the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and its Sub-Committee on Aquaculture (SCA) in their deliberations on the increase in global aquaculture output to deliver nutritious food in a sustainable manner. As an additional output derived from the workshop, the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 549 entitled “A global assessment of offshore mariculture potential from a spatial perspective” was prepared to provide estimates of quantitative spatial measures of the status and potential for offshore mariculture development. Applications of satellite data for enhanced operational aquaculture management are also described. The workshop report has been edited by FAO. All the other reviews and case studies have been reproduced as submitted (on the accompanying CD–ROM). iv Abstract This document contains the proceedings of the technical workshop entitled “Expanding mariculture: technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges”, held from 22 to 25 March 2010, in Orbetello, Italy, and organized by the Aquaculture Branch of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The objective of this workshop was to discuss the growing need to increasingly transfer land-based and coastal aquaculture production systems farther off the coast and provide recommendations for action to FAO, governments and the private sector. The workshop experts proposed general “operational criteria” for defining mariculture activities in three broad categories: (i) coastal mariculture, (ii) off the coast mariculture and (iii) offshore mariculture. Offshore mariculture is likely to offer significant opportunities for food production and development to many coastal countries, especially in regions where the availability of land, nearshore space and freshwater are limited resources. Mariculture is also recognized as a relevant producer of the protein that the global population will need in the coming decades. It is likely that species with the highest production today, such as salmon, will initially drive the development of offshore mariculture. Nevertheless, the workshop agreed that additional efforts are necessary to define optimal species and improve efforts in the development and transfer of technologies that can facilitate offshore mariculture development. The workshop discussions and reviews indicate large potential for the development of offshore mariculture although more detailed assessments are needed to determine the regions and countries that are most promising for development. It is also recommended that efforts be increased to farm lower trophic levels species and optimize feeds and feeding in order to minimize ecosystems impacts and ensure long-term sustainability. Similarly, risk assessments and/or environmental impact assessment and monitoring must always be in place before establishing offshore farms, and permanent environmental monitoring must be ensured. All coastal nations should be prepared to engage actively in developing the technological, legal and financial frameworks needed to support the future development of offshore mariculture to meet global food needs. The workshop report highlights the major opportunities and challenges for a sustainable mariculture industry to grow and further expand off the coast. In particular, the workshop recommended that FAO should provide a forum through which the potential importance of the sea in future food production can be communicated to the public and specific groups of stakeholders and to support its Members and industry in the development needed to expand mariculture to offshore locations. The proceedings include the workshop report and an the accompanying CD–ROM containing six reviews covering technical, environmental, economic and marketing, policy and governance issues, and two case studies on highfin amberjack (Seriola rivoliana) offshore farming in Hawaii (the United States of America) and one on salmon farming in Chile. Lovatelli, A., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J. & Soto, D., eds. 2013. Expanding mariculture farther offshore: technical, environmental, spatial and governance challenges. FAO Technical Workshop, 22–25 March 2010, Orbetello, Italy. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 24. Rome, FAO. 73 pp. Includes a CD–ROM containing the full document (314 pp.). v contents Preparation of this document iii Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Abbreviations and acronyms vii Genesis of the workshop 1 Workshop report 3 Annex 1 – Expanding mariculture farther offshore 12 Annex 2 – Workshop agenda 61 Annex 3 – List of participants 63 Annex 4 – Profiles of experts 65 Annex 5 – Group photograph 73 THE FOLLOWInG REVIEWS ARE AVAILABLE On THE AccOMPAnYInG cD-ROM A review of opportunities, technical constraints and future needs of offshore mariculture – temperate waters 77 John Forster A review on technical constraints, opportunities and needs to ensure the development of the mariculture sector worldwide – tropical zone 101 Andrew G. Jeffs Sustainable development of marine aquaculture off-the-coast and offshore – a review of environmental and ecosystem issues and future needs in temperate zones 135 Marianne Holmer Sustainable development of marine aquaculture off-the-coast and offshore – a review of environmental and ecosystem issues and future needs in tropical zones 173 Dror L. Angel and Dor Edelist The development of offshore aquaculture: an economic perspective 201 Gunnar Knapp Governance in marine aquaculture: the legal dimension 245 David R. Percy, Nathanael Hishamunda and Blaise Kuemlangan Kona Blue Water Farms case study: permiting, operations, marketing, environmental impacts, and impediments to expansion of global open ocean mariculture 263 Neil Anthony Sims challenges for developing emerging economies to engage in off-the- coast and offshore aquaculture: the perspective from a case study 297 Adolfo Alvial vi Acknowledgements Sincere thanks are due to Adolfo Alvial (Adolfo Alvial Asesorías, Chile), Dror L. Angel (University of Haifa, Israel), John Forster (Forster Consulting Inc, the United States of America), Nathanael Hishamunda (FAO Aquaculture Branch, Rome, Italy), Marianne Holmer (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark), Andrew G. Jeffs (University of Auckland, New Zealand), James McDaid Kapetsky (Wilmington, North Carolina, the United States of America), Gunnar Knapp (University of Alaska Anchorage, the United States of America), Blaise Kuemlangan (FAO Development Law Service, Rome, Italy), David R. Percy (University of Alberta, Canada), and Neil Anthony Sims (Kampachi Farms LLc, the United States of America) for the preparation of the technical reviews and case studies included in these proceedings. Special thanks go to Yngvar Olsen (Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway) for chairing the workshop and for leading the preparation of the workshop report. Many thanks are also due to Enrica Franchi (University of Siena, Italy) for hosting the workshop at the Lagoon Ecology, Fisheries and Aquaculture Laboratory of the University of Siena, and to Francesco Cardia (FAO/KSA Programme, Saudi Arabia) and Piergiorgio Stipa (FAO consultant, Rome, Italy) for their valuable logistical support and technical contributions during the entire event. Marianne Guyonnet (FAO Statistics and Information Branch, Rome, Italy) supervised the publication of this document. The document page layout was prepared by José Luis Castilla Civit (FAO consultant, Rome, Italy). This activity was funded by the FAO/Multi-donor Partnership Programme (FMPP) 2009: Implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and associated instruments. vii Abbreviations and acronyms AAA adequate areas for aquaculture ABNJ areas beyond national jurisdiction ACOE Army Corps of Engineers ADP Aquaculture Development Program AMBI AZTI’s Marine Biotic Index CCRF Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries CDUA conservation district use application CDUP conservation district use permit CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CMBB Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine COFI Committee on Fisheries CRAB collective research on aquaculture biofouling CWB Clean Water Branch CZM coastal zone management DA Department of the Army DAR Division of Aquatic Resources DBOR Division of Boating and Ocean Recreation DLNR Department of Land and Natural Resources DOA Department of Agriculture DOH Department of Health EA environmental assessment EAA ecosystem approach to aquaculture EATIP European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform ECASA Ecosystem Approach to Sustainable Aquaculture ED environmental declaration EEZ exclusive economic zone EIA environmental impact assessment EPA Environmental Protection Authority EU European Union FAA Federal Aviation Authority FAD fish aggregating device FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FCR feed conversion ratio FDA Food and Drug Administration (United States of America) FIFO fish-in fish-out ratio FIRA Aquaculture Branch (FAO) FOB freight on board FONSI finding of no significant impact FOSI finding of significant impact FWW Food and Water Watch GHGs greenhouse gases GIS geographic information system GMO genetically modified organism GPS Global Positioning System HAB harmful algae bloom HDPE high density polyethylene HIHWNMS Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary HIMB Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology HOARP Hawaii Offshore Aquaculture Research Project viii HRS Hawaii Revised Statutes ICCAT International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas ICOAD International Council for Offshore Aquaculture Development IIFET International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade IMTA integrated multitrophic mariculture IPN infectious pancreatic necrosis ISA infectious salmon anemia ITI infaunal trophic index IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature KIA Kona International Airport LCA life cycle assessment MAFAC Marine Fisheries Advisory Committee MAFF Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food MHC Marine Harvest Chile MHI main Hawaiian islands MII Marine Industries and Investments MMMP Marine Mammal Monitoring Plan MOM modelling–ongrowing fish–monitoring system NAAFE North American Association of Fisheries Economists NACA Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific NASCO North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization NELHA Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority NGO non-governmental organization NIMBY not in my back yard NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System NWHI Northwest Hawaiian islands OCCL Office of Conservation and Coastal Lands OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OFC off the coast OFS offshore OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration OTEC ocean thermal energy conversion PIRO Pacific Islands Area Office PRD Public Relations Department R&D research and development RAMA Reglamento Ambiental Para la Acuicultura (Chile) RFMO regional fisheries management organization ROV remotely operated vehicle SCA-COFI Sub-Committee on Aquaculture of the Committee on Fisheries SCUBA self-contained underwater breathing apparatus SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center TBT tributyltin UH University of Hawaii UHSG University of Hawaii Sea Grant Program UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization USDA United States Department of Agriculture USFWS US Fish and Wildlife Service WET whole effluent toxicity WFC WorldFish Center WFM Whole Foods Markets WG working group WHAP West Hawaii Aquarium Project ZOM zone of mixing