DOI: 10.15201/hungPeroobkuosll,. 6H5.. 3et.6 al. HuHnguanrigaanr iGaeno gGreaophgircaapl hBiuclalel tBinu l6l5e t(i2n0 6156 )2 (031)6 2 (833)– 2 9 5 . 283–29258.3 Geomorphological hazards in a Mediterranean mountain environment – Example of Tétouan, Morocco Hedvig PROkOS 1, Hasnaa BABA2, Dénes LóCzy3 and Younes EL kHARIM2 Abstract The aim of this paper is to present the geomorphological hazards affecting the city of Tétouan, Morocco. The city is one of the most important urban centres in northern Morocco. Its geographical situation is strongly determined by the fact that in the last centuries it was built on the slopes of two ranges of the Rif Mountains, the Dersa to the North and the Ghorghiz to the South. These slopes relatively abruptly rise above the valley of the river Martil. Leaving the city, the river of only 22 km length flows into the Mediterranean Sea across the relatively wide Martil Plain. Given the geographical and geological setting of this area, heavy precipitation causes several problems during the humid period (November–April). Torrential rainfalls can have devastat- ing effects on the community. Another severe problem lies in the hazard perception by the inhabitants, who lack the necessary information on geomorphic hazards and, as a consequence, keep on building their homes on unstable hillslopes. The working group in which authors participated had the objective to prepare a com- prehensive documentation to inform the population on hazards, to make people aware of the vulnerability of the environment they live in. Keywords: geomorphology, precipitation, urbanisation, landslide and flood hazards, Morocco Introduction earthquake in the coastal town of Agadir in 1960. Cities and rural communities alike face In the developing world it is a common situ- the danger of sea-level rise and desertifica- ation that unregulated urban development tion as a result of climate change. As far as on mountain slopes induces major instabili- research into landslide hazards in Morocco is ties and hazards, while the local population concerned, it has been mostly focused on seis- is not aware of such problems (Verstappen, mic-induced landslides to date (Houssaini, S. H.T. 1989; Alcántara-Ayala, I. 2002; Slay- and Bahi, L. 2014), but hydro-meteorological maker, O. 2010). Therefore, to avoid major drivers are also widespread. The responsibil- disasters scientific research is only the first ity for disaster risk reduction lies with the step, the education of the population on risks Department of Environment at the Ministry is also indispensable. of Energy, Water, Mines and Environment Morocco is one of the most hazard-prone (MEWME), where the creation of a National Maghreb country, where dry spells, floods, Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction is coor- landslides and locust invasions regularly dinated (UNISDR 2012). cause great economic damage. Parts of the In September 2013 an international work- country are also exposed to seismic risk: ing group of volunteers from Europe with 12,000 people lost their lives in a massive geography related degrees was working to- 1 Earth Sciences Doctoral School, Department of Physical and Environmental Geography, University of Pécs. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Université Abdelmalek Essaâdi, Faculté des Sciences, Tétouan, Morocco. E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] 3 Department of Physical and Environmental Geography, University of Pécs. E-mail: [email protected] 284 Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. gether with the students of the Department ley continues in the alluvial Martil Plain of Geology, University Abdelmalek Essaâdi, (Comentale, B. 2007; Naoual, O.M. et al. 2009). Faculty of Sciences, Tétouan. The aim of this This part of the country is strongly influenced cooperation was to create a document based both by the Alboran Basin of the Mediterranean on French methodology. In the popular and also by the Atlantic Ocean. document the sources of geomorphological Similarly to other sections of the Rif hazards and the possible reconstructing and Mountains (e.g. Azzouz, O. et al. 2002), the processes of prevention were detailed. slopes of the mountain ranges near Tétouan are relatively steep, heavy rainfalls induce rapid runoff and some quarters of the city are Geographical setting regularly flooded. Further problems of urban development are the lack of available space Tétouan is a major urban centre of the Tin- and construction licencing policy. gitane peninsula in northern Morocco. The Originally, until the 20th century, the city second most populous city after Tanger (in spread on the foothills of the Jbel Dersa 2014: 463 968) and the 10th by population in mountain range. Thereafter, urbanisation Morocco, administratively it is part of the expanded onto the Martil Plain as well as Tanger/Tétouan region. onto the slopes of the Jbel Ghorghiz (CME– The city is locked between the mountain CMED–Campus 2013). ranges of the Rif Mountains, the Jbel Dersa to the north and the Jbel Ghorghiz to the south, while the hills of Ouadrasse rise in the west Geological setting (Karrouch, S. 2008) (Figure 1). The basin of the river Martil, where the city was built, opens In geological terms it spreads out on the Al- to the east, towards the sea and the river val- boran lithospheric microplate in the Mediter- Fig. 1. Geographical setting of Tétouan. Source: InfoTerre and GoogleEarth, 2014. Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. 285 ranean, although is distinct from both Europe and Africa. Its stratigraphy can be related to the internal ranges of Rif Mountains as part of the Gibraltar Arc; together being part of the alpine origin Betic Cordilleras. The prevailing surface rocks are limestone and flysch. The limestone ranges are not only important because of their susceptibil- ity to rock fall and earthquake events, but also because they are easily dissoluble dur- ing wet periods. Further to this, the studied area belongs to the Central Calcareous Range Fig. 2. Strait of Tétouan. A Digital Elevation Model of the western part of the Valley of Tétouan. Source: (above 1,000 m), of which a 5 km long section Modified after Eghaz, A. 2009 and DICRIM 2013. is located to the north of Tétouan. The existence of visible ancient erosional surfaces makes the Jbel Dersa differ both age slope of 15–25° is typical for higher eleva- from other calcareous and from the moun- tions in the internal ranges of the western Rif tainous ranges of the Tanger Peninsula in Mountains. general (El Gharbaoui, A. 1986). These two In the flat alluvial plain (slopes below residual levels can be described as follows: 1.5°) built up of sediments transported from in the higher regions (500–550 m a.s.l.) a the mountains streams show a meander- relatively flat plain inclining towards SE, ing mechanism. Quoting Comentale, B. supposedly from the Pre-Pliocene; and the (2007), the only stream able to cut through other, lower-setting block (Samsa, 350 m the sandy alluvium is the Martil River. In a.s.l.) is a Late Pliocene surface disturbed by historic times, the estuary was navigable, Villafranchian (MN16-17) and Quaternary the fact that proves the recent filling of the processes. Similar to the Dersa Mountain, basin. Due to the geographical and geologi- the Ghorghiz (1,237 m) also reveals some cal settings, agriculture suffers from several tectonic windows looking towards East. circumstances. In Morocco soils are eroded According to the hydraulic drillings to rates that extremely exceed international studying the upper 100 m of the basin de- standards as well as the rate of pedogenesis posits, the area is built up from Pliocene under the Mediterranean climate (Raissouni, clayey-sandy deposits and Quaternary mud A. et al. 2012). Therefore, natural vegetation (Benmakhlouf, M. and Chalouan, A. 1995). only appears in traces as shrub after a signifi- The Tingitane Peninsula is dominated by cant degradation. mountainous landforms with several intra- mountain basins of different extension and valleys cutting through the pediments. These Social setting intra-mountain basins usually open to the Mediterranean Sea with varying width. The city plays a significant role in the north- Among others, so does the Martil Valley with ern Tanger-Tétouan region since the 8th centu- its relatively wide alluvial plain. The diverse ry, the beginning of the Islamic period. Today landscape comprises abrupt slopes and high it functions as a transiting spot between the relief (Figure 2). The prevailing limestone Andalusian-Spanish and the Islamic world. (in the North and South) and flisch (in the Its population is on the increase. In the most South) strata as well as the clays control the typical Andalusian city of Morocco the Span- morphology and contribute to the occurrence ish influence can be observed not only on the of hazards in the region. Similarly to other ancient buildings but also in the society as basins in the Tanger-Tétouan region, an aver- many inhabitants speak Spanish. Actually, 286 Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. it is more widespread than the French lan- Climatic factors of flood hazard guage, which, beside the Arabic, is the offi- cial language of the kingdom of Morocco. The studied area is one of the most humid The old city, the Medina, a UNESCO World regions in the country. Rainfalls under the Cultural Heritage site, was mostly built in semi-humid Mediterranean climate with the 15th century. One of the smallest, and slight Atlantic influence are also influenced yet best preserved old towns, it is mostly by the basin-like morphology next to the inhabited by people of local origin. It is ac- Mediterranean Sea. The steep slopes around cessible via seven gates, of which Bab Okla, the basin considerably increase the runoff which leads to the city centre, is probably in the narrow Martil Valley. Annual mean the best known. The growing population precipitation is ca. 650 mm (ranges between has been spread out on the hillslopes of both 650–800 mm), however, according to the mountains during the past, especially since Moroccan Ministry of Energy, Mines, Water 2000. Construction licences do not stop the and Environment it often exceeds 1,000 mm mindless urban sprawl. As a consequence, and can even reach 1,800 mm. Karrouch, S. residential development already started on (2008) claims that the majority of the precipi- hazardous slopes. In addition, people living tation falls in the period from December to on the plain do not have much interaction March. Also, referring to Chraa, A. (2006), with those living on the mountain slopes this period can be extended from late Octo- and, thus, when move to the new quarter, ber to mid-February, when ca. 75 percent of they are not informed about the potential the annual precipitation falls mainly in the hazards. The lack of this information makes form of torrential rains. This is the period them build on the affected areas. A possible when flood damage is concentrated. reason for the missing information transfer In the Rif Mountains, due to the dominance can be found in the marked segregation of of clayey sediments and the high relief sub- the population, i.e. the lack of communica- surface runoff becomes subordinate (Chraa, tion between residents in the mountainous A. 2006). Water saturated slopes with angles areas and those living in the city. above 15° and high landslide hazard are com- In developing countries vulnerability to mon along the newly built road network. The natural hazards is much higher than in the length of the river Martil is only 22 km with developed world, and the impacts of certain a mean annual discharge of 19.2 m3/s (rang- threats or natural hazards are more signifi- ing from 2.75 m3/s to 47.3 m3/s). The axial cant. Among the explanatory factors are river receives the cumulative water and sedi- the level of infrastructure (road network, ment discharges that their tributary catch- water supply system) and the practice of ments provide. They are highly sensitive to town planning. Also much depends on the variations in the relative amounts of water consciousness of inhabitants concerning the and sediment (Leeder, M. et al. 1998), as a particular consequences of construction and consequence of what the river builds a vast planning activities. All of these activities are alluvial fan of Quaternary deposits before limited by the low availability of financing flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The major- resources, not to mention the rapid popula- ity of the tributaries issue from a limestone tion and urban growth. range (from 140 m to 1,090 m) close to the In technical context, planning regulations city (Amraoui, A 1988). The river has a rela- and institutional frameworks are increasingly tively small watershed area (1,220 km2), yet associated with the concepts of risk and sus- the intersection of minor streams (Mhajrat, tainability, but in most countries sustainable kheims, Chekkoûr) which join to make up development has only become an explicit the Martil river form a hydrographical node focus of public policy within the last 10–20 of particularly high flood hazard. From the years (Higgitt, D. 2010). node, the discharge increases significantly, Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. 287 often causing huge flooding in the city (most According to the principles of zonation in recently in August 2013). According to the the context of physical geography, zonation Department of Environment at the MEWME of a natural hazard requires the integration (2013), the province of Tétouan is among of primary and auxiliary causative factors, those with the highest risk of inundation clustering of similar units, identification of within the Tanger-Tétouan region, where as dissimilar units, and the multi-level classifi- many as 53 flood events have been recorded cation of mapping units (Ni, J.R. et al. 2006). in the past decade (1993–2013). Furthermore, it is important to recognize the In all scenarios temperatures continue to causes which trigger sudden mass move- rise worldwide, with global mean tempera- ments and lead to catastrophic events, to tures averaging plus 2 °C to 4 °C by the end know about past and present incidents which of the century, accompanied by changes in may help to predict, and at last to recognize the amounts and patterns of precipitation the level of the hazard. This method is called (Borgatti, L. and Soldati, M. 2010). Therefore Rapid Zonation of Abrupt Mass Movement we cannot neglect the predictable changes re- Hazard (RZAMH). It provides a relatively vealed by climate models when talking about complex multi-level classification system for geomorphologic hazards. The quoted authors abrupt mass movement hazards. This kind of add that in the future precipitation can fall classification also involves human impacts. in any time of the year and with increased Beside RzAMH, several methods to pre- frequency and intensity. Particularly concern- dict soil loss erosion exist. The soil loss is ing the rainfall regime of Mediterranean area caused mainly by agriculture activities. USLE (Rianna, G. et al. 2014), as a consequence of (Universal Soil Loss Equation) does not in- changes in precipitation, the main triggering volve human impacts like RzAMH, however, factor, the extension, frequency and intensity can predict the expected amount of soil loss. of landslides could also modify in the near fu- Climatic factors can be somewhat predict- ture. (The interactions between these param- ed and once past events are reconstructed eters see in the chapter of results.) However, they may help us to identify current areas assessment of the impact of climate change on prone to landslides. This landslide suscep- landslide is difficult, because major variations tibility modelling method was presented are expected on the regional scale (Buma, J. at the international seminar, “Journées des and Dehn, M. 1998). Géosciences de l’Environnement” transcript written by Sadiki, A. et al. 2011. Its aim in the first phase, was to “determine landslide Methods susceptible areas based on the study of re- lationships between spatial distribution of The base of our prepared document was the past landslides and the cartographic set of data we have collected on field, derived from landslide predisposing factors” (Sadiki, A. local studies as well as the data provided by et al. 2011) This method, called Informative the local governmental bodies. However, the Values (VI), consists of superposing several amount and depth of the provided data can- thematic layers in a GIS database. Each of the not be considered sufficient. Regarding the presented layers represents a potential pa- technical part, we have supplemented our rameter what can trigger a landslide, ranged data with fieldwork in September 2013 at into classes. Landslide susceptibility occurs some of the affected sites. According to Bor- at the intersection of the most susceptible gatti, L. and Soldati, M. (2010), there are prone areas of each layer (Figure 3). several risk assessment, catastrophe preven- Using GIS software, the combination of the tion methods which can be used for a cer- above mentioned datasets may present a thor- tain natural hazard in a given geographical ough and accurate picture of the mass move- environment. ment susceptible areas. The authors (Khali 288 Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. Fig. 3. Preparatory factors and triggering causes of slope instability with special emphasis on climate condi- tions. Source: modified after Borgatti, L. and Soldati, M. 2010. Issa, L. et al. 2014) estimated the average an- the community and also to create a docu- nual soil loss triggered by mass movements ment on them. The decree expresses that all using the USLE method, and got a result of 36 inhabitants have the right to dispose of all t/ha/year (ranges between 12 t/ha/year and 120 the necessary information, which is of four t/ha/year). Their study area was the Khmiss main types: watershed, which is situated in the northern – knowledge on the natural and technologic section of the Martil watershed, as being part hazards of the commune; of the streams forming the Martil River. – Measuring works and/or any attempt made The main objective of the survey of natu- by the commune; ral hazards was the compilation of a popu- – Emergency plan in case of danger; lar summary, following the example of the – Display flyers/plans about the instructions French Document d’Information Communal which came into force on 27 May 2003. sur les Risques Majeurs (DICRIM), in English: The affected towns/cities and land proprie- Communal Informational Paper about the Major tors have to put out a display plan about the Hazards (Dictionnaire Environnement 2010). instructions needed, well before informing The government decree no. 90-918 about the the public. These instructions are detailed in DICRIM was approved on 11 October 1990. the DICRIM. It states that the mayor has the responsibility Beyond these instructions, it is the respon- to assess possible hazards which may affect sibility of the mayor to decide what this doc- Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. 289 ument will contain. Normally, it contains the province of Chefchaouen (Mastere, M. et al. following points: 2013) 45 percent of gravitational movements – General information on the hazard itself, (landslides included) occur on agricultural whether it is natural or technological by land and 26 percent of them under dense origin; forest coverage. Within the group of mass – The state of the perception of each haz- movements, landslides and land subsidence ard; caused by undermining are the most com- – Every relevant event happened in the past mon hazards regardless of soil coverage type. within the commune; The old city centre protected by wall, the Me- – Preventive, protective, surveying and se- dina, was built upon travertines, therefore, curing activities already made by the com- the hazard of pothole collapse is relatively mune, in order to protect the people in the high. In case of risk or vulnerability, the pa- best way possible. rameters shown in Figure 4 are relevant for The answers to the questions represent the prediction of disasters. the information the mayor can provide to As it is shown in Figure 4, the whole area is the inhabitants about the commune, either affected by several, in some parts by multiple permanent or temporary. These are the ques- hazards, mainly concentrated in the western tions what need to be answered by everyone districts. A simple table provided by the au- – either individual, business managers, or thorities of the community lists the affected institution representatives (of communal or areas, whereas it is well visible that both ru- parental use) – for their own security in case ral and urban areas are affected (Table 1). of danger. The last part “what do I have to The spatial distribution of landslide hazard do to limit the consequences of risk?” shows is closely associated with the distribution of the importance of sharing the current status travertines, which is mostly limited to the of hazards between authorities and popula- area of the Medina. According to Chraa, A. tion. The political success of natural risk pre- (2006), quoting El Gharbaoui, A. (1981), the vention will obviously be a social success for Tingitane Peninsula geomorphologically can each participant of the commune, too. Thus, be classified into the following categories: this requires both consciousness and capability to reduce vulner- ability from the part of the indi- viduals. Results and discussion Due to its geographical and geo- logical setting, people living in Tétouan are exposed to multi- ple hazards. The most severe of them are landslides, therefore, an amount of about 50 percent of the budget designated for public reconstruction works is dedicated for mitigation works in the area of Tétouan and Chefchaouen. It concerns espe- cially the main roads. Accord- Fig. 4. The localization of some of the natural hazards affecting the ing to a recent study from the city of Tétouan. Source: Baba, H. and Prokos, H. 2013. 290 Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. Table. 1. Landslide affected sites in the community area of Tétouan, 2004. zone Sites under risk Village – kourrat Sbaa – khandak zarbouh – koudiat El Hamd Urban – Along the Oued Samsa – Bouenan – Bou Semlal – zkiek – Al Alyeene – Alyeene – Onsar – Mallaleene Rural community – Ajiibech – Seddina – Tayenza – Beni laït – Ikhalfin – Beni Said In the neighbourhood of dam Nakhla Rural – National route n.2 from Spirada to Lhilah. – Regional route n.417 (between Pk 8+500 and Pk 17+380). – Regional route n.414. Routes – Provincial route no.47 02 (route Beni Idder). – Third-class route going to Jbel Ghorgiz. – At some parts along the route in direction of Ken Karrich until the community border of the town of Chefchaouen – erosional basins with low hills within the tion), deep-seated rotational landslides oc- mountain foreland; cur. According to a survey made in 2008, 2 – limestone-dolomite foreland with gentle percent of the buildings collapsed, 7 percent slopes to the South of Tétouan and rang- considerably and 12 percent moderately af- es of subvertical carbonate strata of the fected by the slides (Photos 1–4). Haouz mountain range (highly prone to Example 2: Taboula, Road no. 2. Close to landslides). korrat Sbae, this slide is situated in the cem- The mass movements observed may be etery. It is less deep, but is active in almost separated into slow, mostly continuous move- every year. Retreating gradually in spite of ments and rapid episodic movements. restoration works, it causes constant trouble to the authorities. The municipality is plan- A) Slow, mostly continuous movements ning to build a protective wall. b) Collapse. Processes normally caused by a) Landslides. As mentioned earlier, land- loading or water pumping, but may occur also slides are the most common type of hazard as a consequence of subsurface dislocation of in the Tanger-Tétouan region. This is due to matter. Most commonly affects densely built the common occurrence of clayey beds, the areas, where soft and plastic soil (e.g. clay) can geological setting and the torrential floods be found. As an example the collapse at Onsar following heavy rainfall events. Inactive au Haouz in 1946 can be cited after which shear planes reactivated by anthropic effect event the village had to be evacuated. should also be noted. c) Piping – subsurface changes in volume of Example 1: Korrat Sbae. A continuously matter caused by swelling and shrinking of clays. renewed unstable slope causing many prob- This process normally works at the points lems for constructions and for the main road where single-story buildings join each other. with the same name. Induced by both natu- It is due to the low weight and rigid param- ral and anthropic processes (leaking sewer eters of clay (Baba, H. et al. 2013). A lack of system and lack of subsurface canalisa- geotechnical preventive measures must be Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. 291 Photo 1. Consequences of landslides in korrat Sbae before terrain management, 2012. Source: Faculty of Sciences, Tétouan, 2012. Photo 2. Areas prone to landslides in korrat Sbae. Source: Faculty of Sciences, Tétouan, 2012. 292 Prokos, H. et al. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 65 (2016) (3) 283–295. Photo 3. Protective wall between the road and the slope after landscaping (10 x 10 m). (Photo by Prokos, H. 2013) Photo 4. Korrat Sbae after landscaping (Photo by Prokos, H. 2013)