Andrea Ehrmann · Tomasz Blachowicz Examination of Textiles with Mathematical and Physical Methods Examination of Textiles with Mathematical and Physical Methods Andrea Ehrmann (cid:129) Tomasz Blachowicz Examination of Textiles with Mathematical and Physical Methods AndreaEhrmann TomaszBlachowicz BielefeldUniversityofApplied SilesianUniversityofTechnology Sciences Gliwice,Poland Bielefeld,Germany ISBN978-3-319-47406-9 ISBN978-3-319-47408-3 (eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-47408-3 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016958961 ©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2017 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerInternationalPublishingAGSwitzerland Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface Several books are available on the market dealing with well-known physical test methods which are typical for textile fibers, yarns, and fabrics, most of them necessitating expensive test equipment which is not always available to students andresearchers. This book communicates basic knowledge on the examination of textile mate- rials, from fibers to yarns and knitted or woven fabrics, using mathematical and physical methods. Besides typical textile test procedures, defined by well-known standards, the book aims at showing new ways to examine textile materials and givinganoverviewofthepossibilitiesaswellasproblemsoccurringwhenmethods fromotherareasaretransferredintotheexaminationoftextiles.Thecontentsrange fromapparentlysimplemeasurements,suchasresistanceofconductivecoatingson wovenfabrics, todiffractionmeasurementsonwovenfabrics,tooptical examina- tionofknittedfabricsbymathematicalapproachestostudyyarnhairinessandcover factor. Whilesomechaptersfocusontheeasyrealizationofself-built,inexpensivelab equipment according to defined test standards, others provide new ideas to test textilematerialswithnovelmethods.Thecombinationoftextilesandmathematics, forexample,cannotbefoundinabookyet;apparentlymathematicalmethodshave not yet been adopted in many cases from other areas into the examination of textiles. Alternatively, measurements can beadopted fromotherscientific areas. Inthis case, the deviations of measurements on textiles from tests on rigid materials are describedtoavoiduselessmeasurementsandresultinginterpretationerrors. Themeasurementsdescribedhereinclude(butarenotlimitedto)opticalexam- inations of fibers, yarns, and fabrics by different microscopic techniques; optical evaluation using a focused (laser) beam for diffraction images; image processing techniques for investigation of textile materials; tests of mechanical properties of textiles; thermal properties of fibers, yarns, fabrics, and coatings; special investi- gationsofconductiveormagneticyarns;etc. v vi Preface Wewishyouaninspiringreadingandalotofsuccesswhiletestingyourtextiles, buildingyourowntestequipment,anddevelopingexistingmethodsfurther. Bielefeld,Germany AndreaEhrmann Gliwice,Poland TomaszBlachowicz Contents 1 MeasurementTechnologyinTextileIndustryandResearch. . . . . . 1 1.1 MeasurementProcedures. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 2 1.2 SIandOtherUnitSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 EnvironmentalConditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4 ErrorCalculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.5 BasicPrinciplesofMeasurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 ConductiveYarns,Fabrics,andCoatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 BasicsofConductivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2 ConductiveMaterialsforTextileApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.3 ApplicationsofConductiveTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.4 MeasuringConductivePropertiesofYarnsandTextiles. . . . . . 20 2.5 ExternalInfluencesonConductivePropertiesofYarns andTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3 MagneticYarns,Fabrics,andCoatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.1 DifferentFormsofMagnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2 ApplicationsofMagneticTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.3 MakingTextilesMagnetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4 MeasuringTextileMagnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.5 SimulationofMagnetisminTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4 DielectricYarns,FabricsandCoatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.1 WhatIsDielectricity?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2 ApplicationsofDielectricTextilesandCoatings. . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.3 MeasuringDielectricPropertiesofTextilesandCoatings. . . . . 51 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 vii viii Contents 5 OpticalExaminationsofFibers,Yarns,andFabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.1 ResolutionandMagnification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.2 OpticalMicroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.3 ConfocalMicroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5.4 ScanningElectronMicroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 6 DiffractiveEffectsinYarnsandFabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 6.1 HowtoDescribeaWaveinaQuantitativeWay?. . . . . . . . . . . 76 6.2 DiffractionatSimpleBarriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6.3 DiffractioninMultibarriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 6.4 ApplicationsofDiffractiononTextileFibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 6.5 ApplicationsofDiffractiononTextileFabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 7 ImageProcessingTechniquesforEvaluationofTextile Materials.. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 89 7.1 TheCoverFactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 7.2 SurfaceRoughnessofTextileFabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 7.3 DefinitionandCommonMeasurementMethodsofYarn Hairiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.4 DeterminationofYarnHairinessBasedonMicroscopicImages andStatisticalAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 7.4.1 InformationStoredinaMonochromaticImage. . . . . . . 93 7.4.2 RandomWalkMethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7.4.3 PracticalRealizationofRandomWalkExperiments atOpticallyCapturedMaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7.4.4 ExperimentswithBasicStructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7.4.5 ExperimentswithTwo-DimensionalTextile Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 7.4.6 ExperimentswithHempFibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 8 ThermalPropertiesofTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 8.1 HeatTransportThroughMaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 8.2 ThermalRadiationofBodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 8.3 StandardizedTestsofHeatTransferThroughTextile Fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 8.4 OtherMeasurementsofHeatTransferThroughTextile Fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 9 HydrophobicandHydrophilicTextiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 9.1 Hydrophobicity. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. 125 9.2 SprayTest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 9.3 DropTest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 9.4 ContactAngleMeasurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Contents ix 9.5 DynamicMeasurements:ContactAnglesandRoll-OffAngle. . . . 133 9.6 ComparisonBetweenDifferentHydrophobicityMeasures.. . . . 135 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10 MechanicalPropertiesofYarns,Fabrics,andCoatings. . . . . . . . . 141 10.1 WhatIstheReasonforElasticity?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10.2 MeasuringElasticProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 10.3 MeasuringAdhesiveForcesbyaUniversalTestingMachine. . . . 150 10.4 BendingStrength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 10.5 DrapeandDrapabilityofTextileFabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 10.6 CompressibilityofTextileMaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 11 StabandCutResistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 11.1 Stab-andCut-ResistantBodyArmor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 11.2 TestingStabandCutResistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 11.3 TestingGloves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 11.4 TestingGarments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 About the Authors Andrea Ehrmann (ne´e Tillmanns) has studied physics in the RWTH Aachen University and finished her Ph.D. in magneto-optical examination of thin film samples.Afterward,shestartedworkingasascientificcoworkerintheNiederrhein University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Textile and Clothing Technology. In research projects as well as in teaching, she deals with intelligent/functional textiles, optical examination of textile materials, spectroscopic methods used for textiles,andtransferofphysicalandalsomathematicalmethodswellknownfrom otherfieldsontotextilefabrics. She has been working on the topics of this book for more than 10 years in Niederrhein University of Applied Sciences. Since 2015, she is full professor for physics,measurementtechnology,andtextiletechnologiesinBielefeldUniversity ofAppliedScienceswhereshebuiltupatextileresearchlaboratoryandaresearch groupconcentratingonmeasurementprocessesrelatedtothewholetextilechain. Tomasz Blachowicz has studied physics in the Pedagogical University Krakow andfinishedhisPh.D.intheSilesianUniversityofTechnologyandhishabilitation in Gdansk University with a focus on Brillouin spectroscopy of bulk crystals and non-transparentlayers. He is professor at Silesian University of Technology since March 2009. While teachingallareasofphysics,includingtechnicalphysicsandsimulationofphysical phenomena, he has additionally long-lasting experience in research on optical properties of materials, experimental design, and the application of mathematical and physical methods on textile materials, e.g., transfer of the random-walking approach used for the calculation of cave systems onto textile fabrics in order to calculate their hairiness, or utilization of statistical methods to understand the relaxationprocessofknittedfabrics. xi