Table Of Content

I I Universiteit van Amsterdam IPP 1951- 1976 ALBERT EGGES VAN GIFFEN INSTITUUT VOOR PRAE-EN PROTOHISTORIE CINGVLA IV JEX HORRJEO Edited by B. L.van Beek, R.W.Brandt and W. Groenman-van Waateringe • Amsterdam 1977 To Professor W. Glasbergen Archeologicky Ostav AV CR, Praha 3271010731 Alaheologlcky ustav AV OR KNIHOVNA 118 01 " 1 • Letensk8 4 © 1977 Universiteit van Amsterdam, Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohistorie Niets nit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd en/of openbaar gemaakt door middel van druk, microfilm, fotocopie of op welke andere wijze dan ook, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the Netherlands by Koninklijke Drukkerij Van de Garde, Zaltbommel Bound by Boekbinderij ]. A. van W aarden, Amsterdam Designed by G. M. Pot-van Regteren Altena Contents Preface IX Acknowledgements xn List of abbreviations XIII List of addresses XV I. M. N. VAN LOON Archaeological evidence of trade in W estem Asia: problems and prospects I 2. A. BOOMERT AND S• .B . KROONENBERG Manufacture and trade of stone artifacts in prehistoric Surinam 9 3. H. H. VA N REGTEREN ALTENA AND H. A. HEIDINGA TheNo rth Sea region in the Early Medieval period 4 7 4· S. E. VA N DER LEEUW Towards a study of the economics of pottery making 68 5· M.J. JANSMA Diatom analysis ofpottery 77 6. B.L. VAN BEEK Pottery of the Vlaardingen culture 86 7· J.K. HAALEBOS AND J.R.A.M. THIJSSEN Some remarks on the legionary pottery ('Holdeum ware') from Nijmegen 101 8. W.J.H. WILLEMS A Roman kiln at Halder, gemeente St. Michielsgestel N.B. I I4 9· S.M.E. VAN LITH A Romano-British bangle from V alkenburg Z.H. I30 10. F.R. VAN ITERSON SCHOLTEN Rope and fishing tackle 1 3 5 11. P.J.A. VAN MENSCH AND G. F. IJZEREEF Smoke-dried meat in prehistoric and Roman Netherlands I44 VIII Contents 12. C. VAN DRIEL-MURRAY Preface Stamped leatherwork from Zwammerdam 151 IJ. O.R. ORTIZ-TRONCOSO Documents pour la pre-et la protohistoire de la zone centre-sud du Chili 165 14. J.A. BAKKER, R. W. BRANDT, B. VAN GEEL, M.J. JANSMA, W.J. KUIJPER, P.J.A. VAN MENSCH, J.P. PALS AND G. F. IJZEREEF Hoogkarspel-W atertoren: towards a reconstruction of ecology and archaeology of an agrarian settlement of 10ooBC 187 15. W. GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE Grain storage and supply in the V alkenburg castella and Praetorium Agrippinae 226 16. J.F. VAN REGTEREN ALTENA, P.J.A. VAN MENSCH AND G. F. IJZEREEF The Instituut voor Prae- en Protohistorie (since 1974 the suitable objects for excavation, financial and personal con Bronze Age clay animals from Grootebroek 241 Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohis siderations and the interests of the individual members of torie) celebrated the 25th anniversary of its foundation in staff, but primarily as a result of developments within the 17. M. D. DE WEERD 1976, although the name itself was in fact only formalized discipline. In the first place we may point to the increasing The date ofValkenburg 1 reconsidered: the reduction of a multiple choice question 255 on 22 July 1952. Since a number of notable events in the emphasis on the interaction of man and his environment in history of the IPP have fallen on the rsth of November (in all its aspects and secondly, to the American developments 18. H. SARFATIJ 1961 the first Festschrift, entitled 'In het Voetspoor van A. E. in 'New Archaeology' with the investigation of processes Die Friihgeschichte von Rijnsburg (8.-12. Jahrhundert), ein historisch-archaologischer Bericht 290 van Giffen', was presented to professor Van Giffen, the and the formulation of a theoretical framework for the founder of the IPP and its first director, in 1967 the present study of prehistory. The consequence of these develop (since 1.01.1970) reader in Environmental Prehistory, Mrs ments is that, although virtually the same themes are under Dr W. Groenman-van Waateringe received her doctors consideration as in the early years of the IPP (see Glasber degree and in 1974 the Institute was renamed) this date has gen, 1961, 19662, esp. pp. 14-15 and r6r) the method of been chosen as the anniversary day of the IPP. approach has been drastically altered. At the time of its inception, the intention was that the We may cite, for example: Institute should be primarily concerned with archaeologi r. research in W est-Friesland, originally concerned pri cal investigation in theW Netherlands (for details, refer marily with the excavation of tumuli, now, due to the ex ence may be made to W. Glasbergen' s review 'De pre-en cavation of settlements, centres especially on the study of protohistorie van het IPP', 1961, 1966Z, esp. pp. 2-4), the economic potential of the region and the associated though V an Giffen himself in fact thought in far wider settlement patterns; terms. The original intention was also that the emphasis of 2. the study of the Vlaardingen culture, which was at the Institute in Amsterdam should lie on the humanities, first predominantly descriptive, is now, thanks to the ex especially as evidenced in the Roman/Native Iron Age tensive ecological research undertaken for the various sites, confrontation, as well as the Migration period and the especially concentrated on the potential differences in sub Later Middle Ages. sistence between the sites mutually; The initial design has not only been realized in the last 25 J. the appointment (8.02.1974) of a reader in Medieval years but has in fact been surpassed. Due to the acceptance Archaeology (Drs H. H. van Regteren Altena) at the Uni of two independent majors within the study of Prehistory versity of Amsterdam brought the research into the early - cultural and environmental prehistory - Amsterdam has history of Amsterdam and the Amstelland into a more gen also been able to develop those aspects of the discipline eral course, thus enabling themes such as the development concerned with the sciences. of Medieval towns (in association with historians) and the A geographical extension not foreseen by Van Giffen problem of the Wiistungen to be tackled. • was achieved by the appointment ofDr M. N. van Loon as Amongst the more recent developments in the IPP are: professor of the Prehistory and Archaeology of W Asia at r. the introduction of automatic data processing for ar the University of Amsterdam. This has resulted in staff and chaeological materials; students participating in excavations in Turkey and Syria. 2. air photography; The degree of interest in each of the aspects mentioned while ecological research has expanded both geographi cultural prehistory, environmental prehistory, provincial cally (Ireland, West Asia, South America) and methodolo Roman archaeology, Medieval archaeology and the pre gically (seed analysis, phosphate analysis etc.). However, history of W Asia - has to some extent varied in time, in the traditional hunting grounds have not been forgotten. part due to the differing circumstances, the availability of Here, mention should be made of the excavations of the X Priface Preface XI megalith D26 (Funnel Beaker culture), of the Beaker settle- different angles. Under what circumstances is it permis topic of interest at the IPP, and, as Sarfatij mentions, it also contributions were laid. Not only have several of the arti ment at Aartswoud N .H. and, in the context ofr esearch into sible on archaeological evidence alone to speak of trade? possesses special links with the person to whom this vol cles been held in cold storage for some time and have now the Roman military installations in W Netherlands, the In the absence of written documents (contribution 1), or ume is presented. been brought out to air, but one of the articles also dis excavations at ZwammerdamZ.H., of afortandsix scuttled ethnological analogy (contribution 2) the concept of cusses the horrea in their Roman context. As is pointed out boats in a former Rhine channel, 1 the Roman fortresses at trade is almost impossible to grasp in prehistory. When, Thus several notions are hidden behind our title 'Ex Hor by Renfrew (I975, p. 52), large storehouses offer 'prima Valkenburg Z.H. and the Roman installation(s) at V elsen however, historical sources point to processes over and reo'. For years the IPP was housed in a granary (bakery facie evidence of redistribution' and hence for trade. N.H. above trade (Viking invasions, North Sea culture, contri Ceres), and here the foundations for many of the present bution 3), the process registered archaeologically is exclu The turmoil within the University world and the develop sively trade. ments springing from it did not leave the IPP unscathed. In Contribution 4 provides an excellent introduction to the N otes 1970 the WUB (reorganization of University administra eight following articles, which all deal with some aspect of tion) came into force and as a result the function of profes industry, from household production (Vlaardingen ce sor-director ceased to exist. On 1.01. I973, the then director, ramics, rope making, meat conservation) to workshop in r. The excavations of the ships were twice visited by H.M. 2. For the implications of the terminology, reference may be professor W. Glasbergen, who had succeeded Professor dustry (Roman ceramics) or even to large scale industry the Queen and once by the Governing Board of the made to the recent papers by Renfrew (1975), Sheets (1975) Van Giffen on 1.01.1957, relinquished this post, enabling manufacture (Roman glass, leather?) (Van der Leeuw, University of Amsterdam. and Van der Leeuw (this vol. pp. 68 -76). the direction and administration of the IPP to be formally this vol. table 1). Contribution 5 supplies, as it were, the 3. Depending on how one defines market exchange. transferred to the democratically chosen committee of the link between industry and trade since the analysis of a par Subfaculty ofPre-and Protohistory in which all the mem ticular industrial product may supply evidence of either References bers of the Institute (research staff, technical and adminis the exploitation of locally available materials or the trans trative personnel and students) are represented. port of raw material and finished products. According to At the same time the system of instruction has also been Renfrew (1972) a culture (or a settlement) should be ana GLASBERGEN, w. (1961, 1966) De pre-en protohistorie van het I.P.P. In: W. Glasbergen & W. Groenman-van Waateringe (eds), transformed. Lectures have in part been replaced by semi lysed as to its subsystems, of which the subsistence, tech In het voetspoor van A. E. van Giffen. Groningen, 1961, pp. 1-15, 19662, pp. r-15, 159-163. nars and oral examinations have given way to written pa nological and trade/communication subsystems are but a CHANG, K. c. (1975) Ancient trade as economics or as ecology. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civiliza pers in which the approach to the problem set and its pre few. The first two would appear to be essential for a cor tion and trade. Albuquerque, 1975, pp. 2II-224. sentation in a suitable form for publication play an impor rect analysis and understanding of the last (Chang, 1975, p. LEEUW, s.E. VAN DER (this volume) Towards a study of the economics of pottery making. This volume, pp. 68 -76. tant role in the assessment. The arrival of the Chilean ar 215). It is just this concept which lies at the heart of the POLANYI, K. (1975t) Traders and trade. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civilization and trade. Albu chaeologist Dr 0. R. Ortiz-Troncoso, extended the hori studies concerning the history of settlement in central and querque, 1975, pp. 133-154. zons of pre- and protohistory at the IPP to the New S Chili in the pre--and protohistoric period (contribution RENFREW, c. (1972) The emergence of civilisation. London, 1972. World. Negotiations are in progress with the Institute of I3), the settlements at Hoogkarspel (contribution 14) and RENFREW, c. (1975) Trade as action at a distance: questions of integration and communication. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C.Lamberg South-Asian Archaeology of the University of Amster the grain supply oft he Roman castella at Valkenburg Z.H. Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civilization and trade. Albuquerque, 1975, pp. 3-59. dam concerning excavations in Indonesia and Sri Lanka. (contribution IS). What was the potential of the immedi SHEETS, P. D. (1975) Behavioral analysis and the structure of a prehistoric industry. Current anthropology r6, 1975, pp. 369-391. Well may it be said that the sun never sets on the IPP fields ate environment, how was it exploited and in how far of research! was supply from elsewhere utilized, either via direct access A consequence ofa ll these developments is the increasing or by reciprocity (Hoogkarspel) or via a port-of-trade importance accorded to national and international coop (Roman army) (Renfrew, I975, fig. 10). eration. The three remaining articles are more difficult to catego rize, but are each in themselves evidence of the multiplicity In January 1977, the IPP at long last cleared its original of topics which have held - and still hold - the interest of premises, the former store of a bakery Ceres (Ex Hor the Institute-West-Friesland, Valkenburg Z.H. and Rijns reo) on the Nieuwe Prinsengracht and the Institute is now burg. once more re-united in its new premises, Singel453. The Contribution I6 was stimulated by a unique find and at idea of publishing a volume in honour of our 25th anni the same time provides an excuse to publish all known C versary arose during I975· This volume was to reflect the I4 dates from theE part of West-Friesland. The funda many facets of archaeological investigation practised in the mental reinvestigation (contribution I7) of the dating of Institute, although grouped around the dual theme of trade castellum I at Valkenburg Z.H. and, as a result (or was this and inJustry. 2 the cause?), of the place of the fort in Roman policy, is of All members of the research staff, former students and vital importance to our understanding of the Roman mili advanced students of the IPP were invited to contribute. tary presence in Lower Germany, whether under Caligula The editors have arranged the contributions as follows: or Claudius. Since, according to Polanyi (I95I, I975t), no I-3, articles concerned with trade; 4-I2, articles con ~arket exchange is possible without coinage3 and the Ro cerned with industry in its various forms; I3-15, articles man coins in our region represent the first use of money concerned with economic organization; I6-I8, articles here, the section of the article concerned with the Roman which are not directly relevant to the theme. coins in V alkenburg is also strictly relevant to our theme. The first three articles examine trade in prehistory from The fmal article (I8) needs no apology: Rijnsburg is an old Acknowledgements List of abbreviations The editors wish to express their gratitude to all who have by Mrs Drs C. van Driel-Murray, who, despite the stream BAI Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut, State University, Groningen contributed to this book: in particular to the IPP secretarial of articles, some of considerable complexity, received each office (head Mrs G. Domhoff), the drawing office (head with fresh enthusiasm and in many cases also worked on IPL Instituut voor Prehistorie, State University, Leiden Mr B. Donker) and the photographic department (head improvements in the text with the author(s). Mr F. Gijbels). Without their constant and enthusiastic A generous gift presented to the Subfaculty ofPre-and IPP Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohistorie, University of cooperation this volume would never have achieved its Protohistory made the production of this volume possible. Amsterdam present form. The editors wish to thank the Subfaculty for the decision The translations into English are, with a few exceptions, to allocate the fund to this purpose. OGA Instituut voor Oude Geschiedenis en Archeologie, Catholic University, Nijmegen RMO Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden ROB Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, Amersfoort PUG Provinciaal Utrechts Genootschap voor Kunsten en W etenschappen Ber. ROB Berichten van de Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek Bull. KNOB Bulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond Nieuwsbull. KNOB Nieuwsbulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond OMROL Oudheidkundige Mededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden BJ Bonner Jahrbiicher Jahresbericht GPV Jahresbericht Gesellschaft Pro Vindonissa Drag. Dragendorff, H. (1895) Terra sigillata. BJ 96-97, 1895, pp. 18-155 NAP ( = NN) Normaal Amsterdams Peil: Dutch Ordnance Datum • Cr4 datings given here are conventional datings IA o-5oAD IB 5o-rooAD la o-25 AD Ib 25-5oAD XIV List of abbreviations le 50-75 AD List of addresses Id 75-100 AD Gr. Province of Groningen Fr. Province ofFriesland Dr. Province ofDrenthe Ov. Province of Overijssel G. Province of Gelderland N.H. Province ofNoord-Holland Altena, Drs H. H. van Regteren IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Z.H. Province ofZuid-Holland Altena, Drs J. F. van Regteren ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Z. Province ofZeeland Bakker, Dr J.A. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. U. Province of Utrecht Beek, Drs B.L. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. N.B. Province ofNoord-Brabant Boomert, Drs A. IPL, Breestraat 87, Leiden L. Province ofLimburg Brandt, Drs R. W. IPP, Singel45 3, Amsterdam-C. Driel-Murray, Drs C. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Geel, Dr B. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Groenman-van Waateringe, Dr W. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Haalebos, Dr J. K. OGA, Erasmuslaan 40/8, Nijmegen Heidinga, Drs H. A. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Jansma, Drs M.J. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Kroonenberg, Dr S.B. Geologisch Mijnbouwkundige Dienst, Kleine W aterstraat 2-6, Paramaribo, Suriname Kuijper, W.J. IPL, Breestraat 87, Leiden Leeuw, Dr S.E. van der IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Lith, Drs S.M.E. van IPP, Singel45 3, Amsterdam-C. Loon, Professor Dr M. N. van IPP, Singel4 53, Amsterdam-C. Mensch, Drs P.J.A. van Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Raamsteeg 2, Leiden Ortiz-Troncoso, Dr 0. R. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Pals, DrsJ.P. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. - XVI List of addresses I Sarfatij, Drs H. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Archaeological evidence of trade in Weste rn Asia: Scholten, Drs F. R. van Iterson IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. problems and prospects Thijssen, J. R. A. M. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. M. N. VAN LOON Weerd, Drs M. D. de IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Willems, W. J. H. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort IJzereef, Drs G. F. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Abstract Archaeology can demonstrate that goods have moved to areas other than their place of origin, be it by trade or by a phenomenon resulting in the same effect, such as plunder, imposition of tribute or donation of gifts. Although rare items of obsidian, sea shell etc. travelled great distances as early as 8ooo BC, the finds indicate that regular exchange between regions, leading to interdependence of their economies, only came about 4000 years later. Evidence both archaeological and textual from literate times shows an alternation between periods of far-flung caravan and seafaring activity (3400-2900, 2400-1750 BC) and periods of relative isolation. This cycle was apparently set into motion through direct interference by 'colonial' powers in search of rare luxury goods. The decline of these empires at first increased the intermediaries' share in trade until the latter, too, tapered off. This sketchy picture needs to be supplemented by excavation and identification of the many processing and shipping installations that the suppliers of early markets must have left throughout W Asia. Many recent articles have dealt with ancient W Asiatic and the cultures involved, as revealed by the archaeological re E Mediterranean trade and its relation to cultural changes cord: in the area (Renfrew, 1969; Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972b; a. Trickle trade, through which, e.g., between Sooo and Beale, 1973; Crawford, 1973; Adams, 1974). To a great 4000 BC minute quantities of obsidian might ultimately extent the discussion remains speculative, since archaeolog reach destinations many hundreds of kilo meters removed ical research yields only imperishable evidence. Even for from the source (Renfrew, 1969, p. 157). Close to the the historic periods texts shed only partial light on the source-as might be expected-obsidian forms a large part range of goods traded and the means by which they trav of the chipped stone inventory. Thus at third millennium elled. Nevertheless some convincing points have been BC Korucutepe, 100 km from the Bingol obsidian flow, made in attempting to reconstruct r. the mechanics of obsidian still accounted for 64% of the chipped stone (table trade and 2. the organization of trade (fig. 1). 1). Early occurrences of cold-hammered native copper r. Beale (1973) has distinguished several types of trade might similarly be viewed as either the result of trickle corresponding to stages of increasing interdependence of trade or as obtained directly from the sour~e. One might Table 1. Raw materials used for chipped stone tools and weapons at Korucutepe in E Anatolia, 450D-2ooo BC. chipped stone tools and weapons obsidian chert other flint total 'Canaanean' and chert sickle blades 'Chalcolithic' 6 (86%) I (14%) 7 (roo%) (4500-JOOO BC) Early Bronze I-III 39 (64%) 13 (21%) 9 (r5%) 6r (roo%) (3ooo-2ooo BC) 2 M. N. VAN LOON Trade i11 Western Asia M.N.VAN LOON Trade in Western Asia 3 Table 2. Raw materials and hafting techniques used for tools and weapons at Korucutepe in E Anatolia, 30oo-2ooo BC. tools and weapons F~rghona tanged shaft-hole Bodakh bone or chipped copper antler ground total shon antler stone stone Early Bronze I-II 28 (65%) 9 (21%) 5 (12%) I (2%) 43 (1oo%) •fiodin •Siyolk (JOOQ-2]00 BC) Early Bronze III 7 (29%) 7 (29%) 4 (17%) 6 (25%) 24 (wo%) (23oo-2ooo BC) .Molyon •fblis =Anshan ploit those discrepancies'. In Earth's example, the barriers there is a shift from hafted bone tools and chipped obsidian Mohenjodaro that had to be breached were social. Between the moun weapons to copper and ground stone shaft-hole tools and tain-ringed plains of the fourth millennium BC the bar weapons (table 2). Mellink (1956, 1966, pp. 120-121) has riers were geographical, causing, e.g., turquoise to be com forcefully argued for a correlation between the rise of the mon in its source area (near Iblis) but, at first, rare at Y ahya. principalities later encountered in literate Anatolia and the OMAN The entrepreneur wishing to bridge such a barrier would appearance of fortified sites, heightened metallurgical ac have to extend the village over which he ruled or surround tivity and princely burials in preliterate Anatolia from himself with clients in order to dispose of sufficient surplus 2300 on (Alaca Hi:iylik, Kliltepe mound, Troy II). Ren manpower and supplies to equip and defend a caravan or frew (1969), although drawing different conclusions, has INDIAN OCEAN ship. Only then could he engage in commerce with those noted the same phenomena in the Aegean. distant relations that possessed different ecological or nlin c. It is perhaps no coincidence that true long-distance eral resources. His resulting monopoly in these coveted trade first appeared around 3400 BC together with that goods would enrich him at the expense of his weaker whole complex of features - writing, large cities, monu neighbours and put him into a class apart. A premium was mental architecture and art - implicit in the word civiliza Fig. 1. W Asia, sites mentioned in text. Drawing IPP. thus placed on the creation of larger agglomerations. De tion. The frequent depiction of ships, the location of the mographically this could be obtained by offering the secu main cities, Uruk and Susa, on the lower reaches of rivers imagine an obsidian or copper mine to be the jealously between 4000 and 3400 Yahya close to the chlorite mines rity of a large walled site, encompassing possibly more emptying into the Persian Gulf, and finds from as far away guarded preserve of one village, which grows rich by ex in SE Iran began bypassing villages and trading directly than one traditional village. Economically a division ofla as Bureimi, Abu Dhabi, and Gebel el-Arak, Egypt, are in ploiting its monopoly, but there is thus far nothing in the and regularly with the larger regional centres controlling bor and redistribution of goods available for consumption dications that the by-passing of many intermediaries by archaeological record to support such a hypothesis. More other resources, like turquoise, copper, and marine shells. would lead to interdependence replacing the self-sufficien sea-going ships was an important feature in the escalation likely the mines were tacitly or explicitly regarded as com A concomitant ofs uch regular trade is that the local econo cy of village life. Evidence for all of these developments of trade that the civilized world and its periphery witnessed mon property freely accessible to all within the territory of my comes in part to depend on it. At Y ahya, where chlo can only be adduced for the Protoliterate period from 3400 for a short period. Fortified settlements of Uruk or Susa a larger tribe or cultural unit. Demonstrably this is the case rite had been common but copper had been scarce, 15 out BC on (Adams, 1966, p. 51, 1974, p. 245; Adams & Nissen, traders, yielding characteristic architecture, wheelmade with the obsidian mines on Melos (Weinberg in Renfrew, of r6 tools in period V were made of copper and one of 1972, p. 87), when trade was entering its third stage (see pottery, tablets, and cylinder seal impressions have now 1969, p. 165). In W Asia one might attribute the general bone (previously 12 out of 13 had been made of bone and below), but etlmographic parallels show similar develop been found as far E as Godin in W central Iran (We iss & prosperity oft owns oft he S AnatolianNe o lithic culture like one of copper). At Iblis, close to the copper mines 300 km ments in preliterate societies (Adams, 1974, p. 245 quoting Young, 1975)2 and Malyan, ancient Anshan in central S <;atalhliylik in part to the obsidian mines at Acigol2oo km N ofYa hya, one finds chlorite bowls in Period I-ll where Meillassoux, 1971 andAlagoa, 1970, p. 3 19). Archaeological Iran (Sumner, 1974), as far W as Habuba Kabira-Tell away and that of the Halaf culture to the copper mines as they were absent in the preceding period (Caldwell, reflections of a similar process can be seen in Anatolia and Qannas (Strommenger, 1973, 1976; Finet, 1974) and Jebel within its domain, which would favour the culture or tribe 1967). The fact that sites of the Yahya V culture vary in the Aegean in the later third millennium BC, when after a 'Aruda (Van der Leeuw, 1974) all on the Syrian Euphrates. in relation to its neighbours. The case of the Melos obsidian, size from 0.2 ha toro ha' indicates the beginning of differ period of reversion to village conditions the periphery of Trading with such inland outposts must have been done at found from Mesolithic times as far as 250 km from the entation into villages and towns. As both Binford and W Asia once more became covered with a network of least partly by pack animal caravan. Only down the rivers source, is an early instance of the part played by shipping Steward (in Renfrew, 1969) have indicated, this is not like trade relations (see below). The Altinova valley ofE Ana boats or floats could have been used. A N Mesopotamian/ in what Beale has called the 'by-pass phenomenon'. It was ly to have been a spontaneous development, but rather a tolia, which had been dotted with villages of the Early N Syrian variant of the U ruk culture, with different wheel to be of ever growing importance as the scale of trade ex manifestation of the greater social complexity and central Transcaucasian culture during Early Bronze I and II, made pottery, and stamp seals instead of cylinder seals, panded. At the same time one may assume that small-seal e ization of power which also made larger and more regular (3000-2300), clearly turned into a centrally organized prin known from Gawra, N Iraq, and Judeideh, S Turkey, is trade continued, by which craftsmen's products were lo trading ventures possible. Barth (1967, p. 171 quoted by cipality in~Early Bronze III, with most of the population represented by several copper-working settlements in the cally redistributed. One thus will find beads not only half Adams, 1974) has pointed out that 'entrepreneurs will di grouped around the ruler's fortified storehouse-palace on Altinova valley ofE Turkey (Whallon & Wright, 1970, p. finished in the bead-maker's workshop, but also finished rect their activity preeminently · toward those points ... Nor~untepe (Hauptmann, 1971, p. 85) and neighbouring 70; Esin, 1972, p. 157; Van Loon, 1973, p. 361). This cul as ornaments accompanying the dead in their graves. where the discrepancies of evaluation are greatest, and will Korucutepe deserted except for a possibly religious build ture is notable for the gold, silver, and copper objects found b. Regional or rather interregional trade in which, e.g., attempt to construct bridging transactions which can ex- ing (Van Loon & Giiterbock, 1972). Among the finds, in its graves (Tobler, 1950, pp. 51-97; Van Loon, 1973, pp. - 4 M. N. VAN LOON Trade i11 Westem Asia M. N. VAN LOON Trade in Western Asia 5 360-361; Brandt, in press) - a feature also found in con cessor Lugalbanda, also involved in the campaign against mains of cedar wood, olives, and grapes that were un produced these for their own needs (Adams, 1974, p. 247). temporary graves at Byblos, which are otherwise more Aratta, is said to be the father of Gilgamesh, who opened doubtedly imported from the Mediterranean (Van Zeist in Not until the early second millennium BC was the theo related to Palestinian material (Chehab, 1949/50). Objects up the Zagros juniper forests for Mesopotamian exploita Van Loon, 1968, supplemented by personal communica cratic/autocratic system of state socialism clearly replaced oflapis lazuli, which must have come from Badakhshan in tion by killing their fearful guardian (Hansmatm, 1976). tion). Newly discovered texts show the early importance by private enterprise. Afghanistan, are much more common at sites of this N Roads first cleared by aggression eventually became familiar of Syrian cities as centres of craftsmanship, importing raw Together with many oilier settlements of the Ur III em Mesopotamian Uruk-period culture than in S Mesopota trade routes and pioneers such as Gilgamesh would be gold, silver, linen etc., exporting fmished vessels, ornaments pire Selenkahiye was destroyed toward the end of the third mia itself (Herrmann, 1968). Not surprisingly, sites along come fabled demigods, much like the pioneer of Greek and garments down the Euphrates (Pettinato, 1975, p. 365). millennium (Van Loon, 1975). Such goods as might have the route from Gawra to Afghanistan contain pottery, cop Black Sea trade, Jason, became a hero in Greek mythology. A third epic, concerning Sargon of Akkad, tells how he been traded in bulk-about 4 ml of bitumen, 17 hematite per objects and seals similar to those at Gawra. As late as terminal Early Dynastic II (toward 2600 BC), traversed flooded plains, thorny forests, and rocks of lapis cylinder-seal blanks - were found in llie burned ruins of a The points in common between W Asiatic and Egyptian Susa seems to have dominated the trade in vessels of chlo lazuli and gold to redress the wrongs inflicted upon Meso fortified storehouse which formed a corner of the citadel. material culture, more numerous in this than in any fol rite mined near Y ahya or elsewhere and carved with a potamian merchants by a central Anatolian ruler. Other Other rare commodities turned up in what may have been lowing period, have been persuasively interpreted as evi small number of distinctive motifs (Kohl, 1976). Such late traditions have him cross the Mediterranean to Crete craftsmen's houses on llie citadel-such as over roo pieces dence of far-flung contacts by Frankfort (1951) and Kantor carvings have been found from Ferghana in central Asia to and the country of tin. In greatly ·exaggerated form these of ostrich eggshell, two of which had been made into com (1965). A fortified settlement at Jawa in the Jordanian des Tarut in the Persian Gulf and from the Indus valley to epics seem to reflect the part historically played by the Ak posite statue eyes. These last items had actually been sal ert is connected by its culture to Palestine and Egypt Mari (and possibly Palmyra) in Syria. In Early Dynastic Ill kad dynasty (2334-2154) in reestablishing far-flung trade vaged out of a burned house and buried high up in the (Helms, 1975); its location, however, can only be explain times true steatite vessels seem to have replaced the chlo relations and eliminating intermediaries (Giiterbock, 1934, ruins with the intention of retrieving them at a later date. ed if it was a stop for trans-desert caravans linking the Me rite vessels. To judge by the numbers found at various p. 86; Gadd, 1971, pp. 427-430). During Sargon's reign, it The few houses that had been rebuilt after the fire were sopotamian and Egyptian worlds. Without the help of sites, Adab in Sumer may then have become the centre of is boasted, ships not only from Dilmun but even coming soon abandoned. Numerous in the top levels were clay writing, the Gebel el-Arak knife handle eloquently re distribution. directly from Magatl and Meluhha (probably Oman and figurines of a god riding on a donkey, a deity also revered counts one of the many armed clashes that must have char On the Syrian Euphrates, the Uruk period sites lay de Pakistan/India, Gelb, 1970) moored at the wharf of Akkad by the Assyrian merchants in Anatolia (1950-1850, Ozgiic;, acterized the earliest trading or rather colonizing ventures serted after 3000 BC. Not until about 2400 did S Mesopo (now 470 km from the Persian Gulf but then perhaps only 1965, p. 68, esp. pl. XXVI, 77, described as an onager but (Emery, 1961, pp. 38-39). tamians once more make their presence felt by their cylin 300 km from the mouth of the Euphrates, Oppenheim, undoubtedly a donkey, as it is tame and ridden side-saddle). After the explosive Mesopotamian expansion of the der seals, worshipper statues, and bent-head garment pins, 1969, p. 268; Weiss, 1975, p. 451; Larsen, 1975, p. 57). The Uruk period a clear resistance to Mesopotamian cultural found in the bottom levels of Selenkahiye, 6 and 18 km S implication is that Dilmun could no longer interdict this Ethnohistorical sources indicate that llie impact of trade and, I presume, commercial penetration arose in the N, of its predecessor cities, Habuba Kabira-Tell Qarmas and trade. Under the Ur III dynasty, 2rr2-2005, Mesopotamia can be profound, especially if it takes place between two where the Early Transcaucasian I-ll village culture (3000- Jebel 'Aruda respectively (Van Loon, 1975). Recent Italian imported copper directly from Magan or Oman, but under cultures of differing complexity. By introducing radical 2300) engulfed sites like Korucutepe and Nor:;;untepe in E excavations at Tell Mardikh, 70 km S of Aleppo, have re the Larsa dynasty, 2004-1763, Dilmun once more inter technological improvements, it can create a sudden de Anatolia and Godin in W Iran (Van Loon, 1973, p. 361, vealed trading and other records of the native kingdom of posed itself, supplying copper from Oman and carnelian, mand for new materials and pressure toward producing 374; Buccellati, in press; Hauptmann, 1972, p. rr4; Young, Ebla (2400-2250), Syria's earliest known literate city, on ivory, and pearls from India (Oppenheim, 1954). goods in exchange for which these materials may be ob 1969, p. 1o; Weiss & Young, 1975, p. 15). Further E Susa llie route from the Euphrates valley to the cedar forests and In theW Sargon claims to have possessed and his grand tained: fur in exchange for firearms, among llie 19tl1-cen and its traders, writing in Proto-Elamite, interposed them the Mediterranean (Matthiae, 1975; Pettinato, 1975). son Naramsin claims to have destroyed Ebla and to have tury AD Plains Indians, chlorite bowls in exchange for selves between Mesopotamia and the copper sources of Dilmun in the Persian Gulf and Ebla in Syria were Me reached the Cedar Mountain or Amanus and the Upper copper, among the early fourth millennium BC inhabi central Iran (Ghirshman, 1938), the chlorite sources of E sopotamia's partners in the Early Dynastic III B period Sea or Mediterranean (Oppenheim, 1969, p. 268). In Iran tants ofYahya (Adams, 1974, p. 224 quoting Jablow, 1951 Iran (Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972a), and the lapis lazuli sour (2450-2334), supplying her with goods from the Indian and Anatolia llie archaeological record from 2300 on re and Lewis, 1942; Beale, 1973, p. 140). In the case of the ces of Afghanistan (Herrmann, 1968). Proto-Elamite tab Ocean and from the Mediterranean, respectively (Lam flects the revival of long-distance trade which had stag Plains Indians, this led to the disintegration of tribal organ lets attest to the presence ofSusian traders at Siyalk IV and bert, 1953). Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972b, p. 227) has con nated since 3000 BC (Mellink, 1956, p. 57, 1965, p. rr6; izations and the rise of military societies. In certain African at Yahya IV C. Further E, at the lapis lazuli working centre vincingly argued that Bahrein (part ofDilmun) served as a see above). cases, slave trade accompanied by the introduction of fire ofShahr-i Sokhta I near the Afghan border, a Jemdet Nasr Central Place engaged in the transshipment of goods be 2. Almost impossible to retrieve archeologically is the arms seems to have led to the rise of a mosaic of contending cylinder seal is the only evidence thus far of direct contact tween the Indus valley, SE Iran, and Mesopotamia. Carved way in which trade was organized. From the earliest liter chiefdoms, one of which eventually imposed its hegemony (Lamberg-Karlovsky & Tosi, 1973, p. 38, 51). Sites of the chlorite bowls from Yahya are paralleled at Mohenjo-daro ate times until the end of the Ur III empire about 2000 BC over a number of others (Adams, 1974, p. 244 quoting Jemdet Nasr period (3 100-2900) in Mesopotamia continu and a Persian Gulf seal has been found in Yahya IV B. it appears that merchants were state employees receiving Goody, 1971 ; Kottak, r 972 ; Miller, I 970). ed to receive lapis lazuli from their E neighbours. During Stone anchors, dedicated to temples at Byblos on the Med goods from the temple or palace with instructions to ex Looking at the archaeological and textual evidence from the Early Dynastic I period (2900-2750), however, the im iterranean and Bahrein in the Persian Gulf, attest the ac change them against other goods that were to be delivered late third/early second millennium BC Anatolia, one won portation of lapis seems to have come to a standstill in tivity of sea traders along these coasts from the mid-third to the temple or palace in return (Leemans, 1972/73). Ex ders if a similar interpretation would fit the developments Sumer as well as in Egypt (Herrmann, 1968). to the early second millennium BC (Dunand, 1958, p. 646, change rates between commodities were quoted in weights there: princely seats of power arose all over Anatolia from The quest for lapis lazuli is tl1e central theme in a group 650; Mortensen, 1970, p. 394, 396; date based on Mor of silver. If there may have been room for private enter about 2300 BC (see above); after half a century of preliter of epics recounting the exploits of the first dynasty ofUruk tensen, personal communication). prise - as is suggested by tl1e fluctuating exchange rates -, ate occupation we find Assyrian merchants inhabiting sub (Early Dynastic II, 2750-26oo) against the rulers of Aratta, Texts show that through its seaport Guabba the state of this is not explicitly stated by third-millennium texts. The urbs ofKiiltepe, Bogazkoy, etc. from 1950 to 1750, supply which is situated beyond Anshan (S central Iran. Majidza Lagash-a political as well as an economic rival ofUr-ex new texts from Ebla prove trade and export industry were ing the local princes with luxury garments and tin (needed deh, 1976, has shown that Aratta must be the region of ported textiles, grain, fish, livestock, oil, fat, wood, cop entirely iU: the hands of the king in the outlying parts ofW to manufacture bronze tools and weapons) in exchange for Iblis and Y ahya). At first the Lord of Aratta does not wish per, tin, lead, and silver. In spite of arguments to the con Asia as well as in Mesopotamia (Pettinato, 1975, p. 366). silver and gold; around tl1e time when these colonies dis to accept the grain offered by King Enmerkar ofUruk, but trary (Gurney, 1954), the cedar wood that Lagash exported Most of the state textile, leallier and salted fish industry appear through acts of war, the king of Hattusa (Bogaz a drought forces him to submit and yield up gold, silver, to theE must have come from theW. Selenkahiye, which mentioned in Mesopotamian texts must also have been set koy) establishes himself as 'great king' over the greater lapis lazuli, and carnelian (Kramer, 1952). Enmerkar's sue- is linked to Mesopotamia by the Euphrates, has yielded re- up for export, since Mesopotamian households presumably part of Anatolia. If the military and political balance may

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159 Pages·1977·185.166 MB·English
by  B. L. van Beek, R. W. Brandt, W. Groenman-van Waateringe
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I I Universiteit van Amsterdam IPP 1951- 1976 ALBERT EGGES VAN GIFFEN INSTITUUT VOOR PRAE-EN PROTOHISTORIE CINGVLA IV JEX HORRJEO Edited by B. L.van Beek, R.W.Brandt and W. Groenman-van Waateringe • Amsterdam 1977 To Professor W. Glasbergen Archeologicky Ostav AV CR, Praha 3271010731 Alaheologlcky ustav AV OR KNIHOVNA 118 01 " 1 • Letensk8 4 © 1977 Universiteit van Amsterdam, Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohistorie Niets nit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd en/of openbaar gemaakt door middel van druk, microfilm, fotocopie of op welke andere wijze dan ook, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgever. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the Netherlands by Koninklijke Drukkerij Van de Garde, Zaltbommel Bound by Boekbinderij ]. A. van W aarden, Amsterdam Designed by G. M. Pot-van Regteren Altena Contents Preface IX Acknowledgements xn List of abbreviations XIII List of addresses XV I. M. N. VAN LOON Archaeological evidence of trade in W estem Asia: problems and prospects I 2. A. BOOMERT AND S• .B . KROONENBERG Manufacture and trade of stone artifacts in prehistoric Surinam 9 3. H. H. VA N REGTEREN ALTENA AND H. A. HEIDINGA TheNo rth Sea region in the Early Medieval period 4 7 4· S. E. VA N DER LEEUW Towards a study of the economics of pottery making 68 5· M.J. JANSMA Diatom analysis ofpottery 77 6. B.L. VAN BEEK Pottery of the Vlaardingen culture 86 7· J.K. HAALEBOS AND J.R.A.M. THIJSSEN Some remarks on the legionary pottery ('Holdeum ware') from Nijmegen 101 8. W.J.H. WILLEMS A Roman kiln at Halder, gemeente St. Michielsgestel N.B. I I4 9· S.M.E. VAN LITH A Romano-British bangle from V alkenburg Z.H. I30 10. F.R. VAN ITERSON SCHOLTEN Rope and fishing tackle 1 3 5 11. P.J.A. VAN MENSCH AND G. F. IJZEREEF Smoke-dried meat in prehistoric and Roman Netherlands I44 VIII Contents 12. C. VAN DRIEL-MURRAY Preface Stamped leatherwork from Zwammerdam 151 IJ. O.R. ORTIZ-TRONCOSO Documents pour la pre-et la protohistoire de la zone centre-sud du Chili 165 14. J.A. BAKKER, R. W. BRANDT, B. VAN GEEL, M.J. JANSMA, W.J. KUIJPER, P.J.A. VAN MENSCH, J.P. PALS AND G. F. IJZEREEF Hoogkarspel-W atertoren: towards a reconstruction of ecology and archaeology of an agrarian settlement of 10ooBC 187 15. W. GROENMAN-VAN WAATERINGE Grain storage and supply in the V alkenburg castella and Praetorium Agrippinae 226 16. J.F. VAN REGTEREN ALTENA, P.J.A. VAN MENSCH AND G. F. IJZEREEF The Instituut voor Prae- en Protohistorie (since 1974 the suitable objects for excavation, financial and personal con Bronze Age clay animals from Grootebroek 241 Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohis siderations and the interests of the individual members of torie) celebrated the 25th anniversary of its foundation in staff, but primarily as a result of developments within the 17. M. D. DE WEERD 1976, although the name itself was in fact only formalized discipline. In the first place we may point to the increasing The date ofValkenburg 1 reconsidered: the reduction of a multiple choice question 255 on 22 July 1952. Since a number of notable events in the emphasis on the interaction of man and his environment in history of the IPP have fallen on the rsth of November (in all its aspects and secondly, to the American developments 18. H. SARFATIJ 1961 the first Festschrift, entitled 'In het Voetspoor van A. E. in 'New Archaeology' with the investigation of processes Die Friihgeschichte von Rijnsburg (8.-12. Jahrhundert), ein historisch-archaologischer Bericht 290 van Giffen', was presented to professor Van Giffen, the and the formulation of a theoretical framework for the founder of the IPP and its first director, in 1967 the present study of prehistory. The consequence of these develop (since 1.01.1970) reader in Environmental Prehistory, Mrs ments is that, although virtually the same themes are under Dr W. Groenman-van Waateringe received her doctors consideration as in the early years of the IPP (see Glasber degree and in 1974 the Institute was renamed) this date has gen, 1961, 19662, esp. pp. 14-15 and r6r) the method of been chosen as the anniversary day of the IPP. approach has been drastically altered. At the time of its inception, the intention was that the We may cite, for example: Institute should be primarily concerned with archaeologi r. research in W est-Friesland, originally concerned pri cal investigation in theW Netherlands (for details, refer marily with the excavation of tumuli, now, due to the ex ence may be made to W. Glasbergen' s review 'De pre-en cavation of settlements, centres especially on the study of protohistorie van het IPP', 1961, 1966Z, esp. pp. 2-4), the economic potential of the region and the associated though V an Giffen himself in fact thought in far wider settlement patterns; terms. The original intention was also that the emphasis of 2. the study of the Vlaardingen culture, which was at the Institute in Amsterdam should lie on the humanities, first predominantly descriptive, is now, thanks to the ex especially as evidenced in the Roman/Native Iron Age tensive ecological research undertaken for the various sites, confrontation, as well as the Migration period and the especially concentrated on the potential differences in sub Later Middle Ages. sistence between the sites mutually; The initial design has not only been realized in the last 25 J. the appointment (8.02.1974) of a reader in Medieval years but has in fact been surpassed. Due to the acceptance Archaeology (Drs H. H. van Regteren Altena) at the Uni of two independent majors within the study of Prehistory versity of Amsterdam brought the research into the early - cultural and environmental prehistory - Amsterdam has history of Amsterdam and the Amstelland into a more gen also been able to develop those aspects of the discipline eral course, thus enabling themes such as the development concerned with the sciences. of Medieval towns (in association with historians) and the A geographical extension not foreseen by Van Giffen problem of the Wiistungen to be tackled. • was achieved by the appointment ofDr M. N. van Loon as Amongst the more recent developments in the IPP are: professor of the Prehistory and Archaeology of W Asia at r. the introduction of automatic data processing for ar the University of Amsterdam. This has resulted in staff and chaeological materials; students participating in excavations in Turkey and Syria. 2. air photography; The degree of interest in each of the aspects mentioned while ecological research has expanded both geographi cultural prehistory, environmental prehistory, provincial cally (Ireland, West Asia, South America) and methodolo Roman archaeology, Medieval archaeology and the pre gically (seed analysis, phosphate analysis etc.). However, history of W Asia - has to some extent varied in time, in the traditional hunting grounds have not been forgotten. part due to the differing circumstances, the availability of Here, mention should be made of the excavations of the X Priface Preface XI megalith D26 (Funnel Beaker culture), of the Beaker settle- different angles. Under what circumstances is it permis topic of interest at the IPP, and, as Sarfatij mentions, it also contributions were laid. Not only have several of the arti ment at Aartswoud N .H. and, in the context ofr esearch into sible on archaeological evidence alone to speak of trade? possesses special links with the person to whom this vol cles been held in cold storage for some time and have now the Roman military installations in W Netherlands, the In the absence of written documents (contribution 1), or ume is presented. been brought out to air, but one of the articles also dis excavations at ZwammerdamZ.H., of afortandsix scuttled ethnological analogy (contribution 2) the concept of cusses the horrea in their Roman context. As is pointed out boats in a former Rhine channel, 1 the Roman fortresses at trade is almost impossible to grasp in prehistory. When, Thus several notions are hidden behind our title 'Ex Hor by Renfrew (I975, p. 52), large storehouses offer 'prima Valkenburg Z.H. and the Roman installation(s) at V elsen however, historical sources point to processes over and reo'. For years the IPP was housed in a granary (bakery facie evidence of redistribution' and hence for trade. N.H. above trade (Viking invasions, North Sea culture, contri Ceres), and here the foundations for many of the present bution 3), the process registered archaeologically is exclu The turmoil within the University world and the develop sively trade. ments springing from it did not leave the IPP unscathed. In Contribution 4 provides an excellent introduction to the N otes 1970 the WUB (reorganization of University administra eight following articles, which all deal with some aspect of tion) came into force and as a result the function of profes industry, from household production (Vlaardingen ce sor-director ceased to exist. On 1.01. I973, the then director, ramics, rope making, meat conservation) to workshop in r. The excavations of the ships were twice visited by H.M. 2. For the implications of the terminology, reference may be professor W. Glasbergen, who had succeeded Professor dustry (Roman ceramics) or even to large scale industry the Queen and once by the Governing Board of the made to the recent papers by Renfrew (1975), Sheets (1975) Van Giffen on 1.01.1957, relinquished this post, enabling manufacture (Roman glass, leather?) (Van der Leeuw, University of Amsterdam. and Van der Leeuw (this vol. pp. 68 -76). the direction and administration of the IPP to be formally this vol. table 1). Contribution 5 supplies, as it were, the 3. Depending on how one defines market exchange. transferred to the democratically chosen committee of the link between industry and trade since the analysis of a par Subfaculty ofPre-and Protohistory in which all the mem ticular industrial product may supply evidence of either References bers of the Institute (research staff, technical and adminis the exploitation of locally available materials or the trans trative personnel and students) are represented. port of raw material and finished products. According to At the same time the system of instruction has also been Renfrew (1972) a culture (or a settlement) should be ana GLASBERGEN, w. (1961, 1966) De pre-en protohistorie van het I.P.P. In: W. Glasbergen & W. Groenman-van Waateringe (eds), transformed. Lectures have in part been replaced by semi lysed as to its subsystems, of which the subsistence, tech In het voetspoor van A. E. van Giffen. Groningen, 1961, pp. 1-15, 19662, pp. r-15, 159-163. nars and oral examinations have given way to written pa nological and trade/communication subsystems are but a CHANG, K. c. (1975) Ancient trade as economics or as ecology. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civiliza pers in which the approach to the problem set and its pre few. The first two would appear to be essential for a cor tion and trade. Albuquerque, 1975, pp. 2II-224. sentation in a suitable form for publication play an impor rect analysis and understanding of the last (Chang, 1975, p. LEEUW, s.E. VAN DER (this volume) Towards a study of the economics of pottery making. This volume, pp. 68 -76. tant role in the assessment. The arrival of the Chilean ar 215). It is just this concept which lies at the heart of the POLANYI, K. (1975t) Traders and trade. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civilization and trade. Albu chaeologist Dr 0. R. Ortiz-Troncoso, extended the hori studies concerning the history of settlement in central and querque, 1975, pp. 133-154. zons of pre- and protohistory at the IPP to the New S Chili in the pre--and protohistoric period (contribution RENFREW, c. (1972) The emergence of civilisation. London, 1972. World. Negotiations are in progress with the Institute of I3), the settlements at Hoogkarspel (contribution 14) and RENFREW, c. (1975) Trade as action at a distance: questions of integration and communication. In:]. A. Sabloff & C. C.Lamberg South-Asian Archaeology of the University of Amster the grain supply oft he Roman castella at Valkenburg Z.H. Karlovsky (eds), Ancient civilization and trade. Albuquerque, 1975, pp. 3-59. dam concerning excavations in Indonesia and Sri Lanka. (contribution IS). What was the potential of the immedi SHEETS, P. D. (1975) Behavioral analysis and the structure of a prehistoric industry. Current anthropology r6, 1975, pp. 369-391. Well may it be said that the sun never sets on the IPP fields ate environment, how was it exploited and in how far of research! was supply from elsewhere utilized, either via direct access A consequence ofa ll these developments is the increasing or by reciprocity (Hoogkarspel) or via a port-of-trade importance accorded to national and international coop (Roman army) (Renfrew, I975, fig. 10). eration. The three remaining articles are more difficult to catego rize, but are each in themselves evidence of the multiplicity In January 1977, the IPP at long last cleared its original of topics which have held - and still hold - the interest of premises, the former store of a bakery Ceres (Ex Hor the Institute-West-Friesland, Valkenburg Z.H. and Rijns reo) on the Nieuwe Prinsengracht and the Institute is now burg. once more re-united in its new premises, Singel453. The Contribution I6 was stimulated by a unique find and at idea of publishing a volume in honour of our 25th anni the same time provides an excuse to publish all known C versary arose during I975· This volume was to reflect the I4 dates from theE part of West-Friesland. The funda many facets of archaeological investigation practised in the mental reinvestigation (contribution I7) of the dating of Institute, although grouped around the dual theme of trade castellum I at Valkenburg Z.H. and, as a result (or was this and inJustry. 2 the cause?), of the place of the fort in Roman policy, is of All members of the research staff, former students and vital importance to our understanding of the Roman mili advanced students of the IPP were invited to contribute. tary presence in Lower Germany, whether under Caligula The editors have arranged the contributions as follows: or Claudius. Since, according to Polanyi (I95I, I975t), no I-3, articles concerned with trade; 4-I2, articles con ~arket exchange is possible without coinage3 and the Ro cerned with industry in its various forms; I3-15, articles man coins in our region represent the first use of money concerned with economic organization; I6-I8, articles here, the section of the article concerned with the Roman which are not directly relevant to the theme. coins in V alkenburg is also strictly relevant to our theme. The first three articles examine trade in prehistory from The fmal article (I8) needs no apology: Rijnsburg is an old Acknowledgements List of abbreviations The editors wish to express their gratitude to all who have by Mrs Drs C. van Driel-Murray, who, despite the stream BAI Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut, State University, Groningen contributed to this book: in particular to the IPP secretarial of articles, some of considerable complexity, received each office (head Mrs G. Domhoff), the drawing office (head with fresh enthusiasm and in many cases also worked on IPL Instituut voor Prehistorie, State University, Leiden Mr B. Donker) and the photographic department (head improvements in the text with the author(s). Mr F. Gijbels). Without their constant and enthusiastic A generous gift presented to the Subfaculty ofPre-and IPP Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae-en Protohistorie, University of cooperation this volume would never have achieved its Protohistory made the production of this volume possible. Amsterdam present form. The editors wish to thank the Subfaculty for the decision The translations into English are, with a few exceptions, to allocate the fund to this purpose. OGA Instituut voor Oude Geschiedenis en Archeologie, Catholic University, Nijmegen RMO Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden ROB Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, Amersfoort PUG Provinciaal Utrechts Genootschap voor Kunsten en W etenschappen Ber. ROB Berichten van de Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek Bull. KNOB Bulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond Nieuwsbull. KNOB Nieuwsbulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond OMROL Oudheidkundige Mededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden BJ Bonner Jahrbiicher Jahresbericht GPV Jahresbericht Gesellschaft Pro Vindonissa Drag. Dragendorff, H. (1895) Terra sigillata. BJ 96-97, 1895, pp. 18-155 NAP ( = NN) Normaal Amsterdams Peil: Dutch Ordnance Datum • Cr4 datings given here are conventional datings IA o-5oAD IB 5o-rooAD la o-25 AD Ib 25-5oAD XIV List of abbreviations le 50-75 AD List of addresses Id 75-100 AD Gr. Province of Groningen Fr. Province ofFriesland Dr. Province ofDrenthe Ov. Province of Overijssel G. Province of Gelderland N.H. Province ofNoord-Holland Altena, Drs H. H. van Regteren IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Z.H. Province ofZuid-Holland Altena, Drs J. F. van Regteren ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Z. Province ofZeeland Bakker, Dr J.A. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. U. Province of Utrecht Beek, Drs B.L. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. N.B. Province ofNoord-Brabant Boomert, Drs A. IPL, Breestraat 87, Leiden L. Province ofLimburg Brandt, Drs R. W. IPP, Singel45 3, Amsterdam-C. Driel-Murray, Drs C. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Geel, Dr B. van IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Groenman-van Waateringe, Dr W. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Haalebos, Dr J. K. OGA, Erasmuslaan 40/8, Nijmegen Heidinga, Drs H. A. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Jansma, Drs M.J. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Kroonenberg, Dr S.B. Geologisch Mijnbouwkundige Dienst, Kleine W aterstraat 2-6, Paramaribo, Suriname Kuijper, W.J. IPL, Breestraat 87, Leiden Leeuw, Dr S.E. van der IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Lith, Drs S.M.E. van IPP, Singel45 3, Amsterdam-C. Loon, Professor Dr M. N. van IPP, Singel4 53, Amsterdam-C. Mensch, Drs P.J.A. van Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Raamsteeg 2, Leiden Ortiz-Troncoso, Dr 0. R. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Pals, DrsJ.P. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. - XVI List of addresses I Sarfatij, Drs H. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Archaeological evidence of trade in Weste rn Asia: Scholten, Drs F. R. van Iterson IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. problems and prospects Thijssen, J. R. A. M. IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. M. N. VAN LOON Weerd, Drs M. D. de IPP, Singel453, Amsterdam-C. Willems, W. J. H. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort IJzereef, Drs G. F. ROB, Kleine Haag 2, Amersfoort Abstract Archaeology can demonstrate that goods have moved to areas other than their place of origin, be it by trade or by a phenomenon resulting in the same effect, such as plunder, imposition of tribute or donation of gifts. Although rare items of obsidian, sea shell etc. travelled great distances as early as 8ooo BC, the finds indicate that regular exchange between regions, leading to interdependence of their economies, only came about 4000 years later. Evidence both archaeological and textual from literate times shows an alternation between periods of far-flung caravan and seafaring activity (3400-2900, 2400-1750 BC) and periods of relative isolation. This cycle was apparently set into motion through direct interference by 'colonial' powers in search of rare luxury goods. The decline of these empires at first increased the intermediaries' share in trade until the latter, too, tapered off. This sketchy picture needs to be supplemented by excavation and identification of the many processing and shipping installations that the suppliers of early markets must have left throughout W Asia. Many recent articles have dealt with ancient W Asiatic and the cultures involved, as revealed by the archaeological re E Mediterranean trade and its relation to cultural changes cord: in the area (Renfrew, 1969; Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972b; a. Trickle trade, through which, e.g., between Sooo and Beale, 1973; Crawford, 1973; Adams, 1974). To a great 4000 BC minute quantities of obsidian might ultimately extent the discussion remains speculative, since archaeolog reach destinations many hundreds of kilo meters removed ical research yields only imperishable evidence. Even for from the source (Renfrew, 1969, p. 157). Close to the the historic periods texts shed only partial light on the source-as might be expected-obsidian forms a large part range of goods traded and the means by which they trav of the chipped stone inventory. Thus at third millennium elled. Nevertheless some convincing points have been BC Korucutepe, 100 km from the Bingol obsidian flow, made in attempting to reconstruct r. the mechanics of obsidian still accounted for 64% of the chipped stone (table trade and 2. the organization of trade (fig. 1). 1). Early occurrences of cold-hammered native copper r. Beale (1973) has distinguished several types of trade might similarly be viewed as either the result of trickle corresponding to stages of increasing interdependence of trade or as obtained directly from the sour~e. One might Table 1. Raw materials used for chipped stone tools and weapons at Korucutepe in E Anatolia, 450D-2ooo BC. chipped stone tools and weapons obsidian chert other flint total 'Canaanean' and chert sickle blades 'Chalcolithic' 6 (86%) I (14%) 7 (roo%) (4500-JOOO BC) Early Bronze I-III 39 (64%) 13 (21%) 9 (r5%) 6r (roo%) (3ooo-2ooo BC) 2 M. N. VAN LOON Trade i11 Western Asia M.N.VAN LOON Trade in Western Asia 3 Table 2. Raw materials and hafting techniques used for tools and weapons at Korucutepe in E Anatolia, 30oo-2ooo BC. tools and weapons F~rghona tanged shaft-hole Bodakh bone or chipped copper antler ground total shon antler stone stone Early Bronze I-II 28 (65%) 9 (21%) 5 (12%) I (2%) 43 (1oo%) •fiodin •Siyolk (JOOQ-2]00 BC) Early Bronze III 7 (29%) 7 (29%) 4 (17%) 6 (25%) 24 (wo%) (23oo-2ooo BC) .Molyon •fblis =Anshan ploit those discrepancies'. In Earth's example, the barriers there is a shift from hafted bone tools and chipped obsidian Mohenjodaro that had to be breached were social. Between the moun weapons to copper and ground stone shaft-hole tools and tain-ringed plains of the fourth millennium BC the bar weapons (table 2). Mellink (1956, 1966, pp. 120-121) has riers were geographical, causing, e.g., turquoise to be com forcefully argued for a correlation between the rise of the mon in its source area (near Iblis) but, at first, rare at Y ahya. principalities later encountered in literate Anatolia and the OMAN The entrepreneur wishing to bridge such a barrier would appearance of fortified sites, heightened metallurgical ac have to extend the village over which he ruled or surround tivity and princely burials in preliterate Anatolia from himself with clients in order to dispose of sufficient surplus 2300 on (Alaca Hi:iylik, Kliltepe mound, Troy II). Ren manpower and supplies to equip and defend a caravan or frew (1969), although drawing different conclusions, has INDIAN OCEAN ship. Only then could he engage in commerce with those noted the same phenomena in the Aegean. distant relations that possessed different ecological or nlin c. It is perhaps no coincidence that true long-distance eral resources. His resulting monopoly in these coveted trade first appeared around 3400 BC together with that goods would enrich him at the expense of his weaker whole complex of features - writing, large cities, monu neighbours and put him into a class apart. A premium was mental architecture and art - implicit in the word civiliza Fig. 1. W Asia, sites mentioned in text. Drawing IPP. thus placed on the creation of larger agglomerations. De tion. The frequent depiction of ships, the location of the mographically this could be obtained by offering the secu main cities, Uruk and Susa, on the lower reaches of rivers imagine an obsidian or copper mine to be the jealously between 4000 and 3400 Yahya close to the chlorite mines rity of a large walled site, encompassing possibly more emptying into the Persian Gulf, and finds from as far away guarded preserve of one village, which grows rich by ex in SE Iran began bypassing villages and trading directly than one traditional village. Economically a division ofla as Bureimi, Abu Dhabi, and Gebel el-Arak, Egypt, are in ploiting its monopoly, but there is thus far nothing in the and regularly with the larger regional centres controlling bor and redistribution of goods available for consumption dications that the by-passing of many intermediaries by archaeological record to support such a hypothesis. More other resources, like turquoise, copper, and marine shells. would lead to interdependence replacing the self-sufficien sea-going ships was an important feature in the escalation likely the mines were tacitly or explicitly regarded as com A concomitant ofs uch regular trade is that the local econo cy of village life. Evidence for all of these developments of trade that the civilized world and its periphery witnessed mon property freely accessible to all within the territory of my comes in part to depend on it. At Y ahya, where chlo can only be adduced for the Protoliterate period from 3400 for a short period. Fortified settlements of Uruk or Susa a larger tribe or cultural unit. Demonstrably this is the case rite had been common but copper had been scarce, 15 out BC on (Adams, 1966, p. 51, 1974, p. 245; Adams & Nissen, traders, yielding characteristic architecture, wheelmade with the obsidian mines on Melos (Weinberg in Renfrew, of r6 tools in period V were made of copper and one of 1972, p. 87), when trade was entering its third stage (see pottery, tablets, and cylinder seal impressions have now 1969, p. 165). In W Asia one might attribute the general bone (previously 12 out of 13 had been made of bone and below), but etlmographic parallels show similar develop been found as far E as Godin in W central Iran (We iss & prosperity oft owns oft he S AnatolianNe o lithic culture like one of copper). At Iblis, close to the copper mines 300 km ments in preliterate societies (Adams, 1974, p. 245 quoting Young, 1975)2 and Malyan, ancient Anshan in central S <;atalhliylik in part to the obsidian mines at Acigol2oo km N ofYa hya, one finds chlorite bowls in Period I-ll where Meillassoux, 1971 andAlagoa, 1970, p. 3 19). Archaeological Iran (Sumner, 1974), as far W as Habuba Kabira-Tell away and that of the Halaf culture to the copper mines as they were absent in the preceding period (Caldwell, reflections of a similar process can be seen in Anatolia and Qannas (Strommenger, 1973, 1976; Finet, 1974) and Jebel within its domain, which would favour the culture or tribe 1967). The fact that sites of the Yahya V culture vary in the Aegean in the later third millennium BC, when after a 'Aruda (Van der Leeuw, 1974) all on the Syrian Euphrates. in relation to its neighbours. The case of the Melos obsidian, size from 0.2 ha toro ha' indicates the beginning of differ period of reversion to village conditions the periphery of Trading with such inland outposts must have been done at found from Mesolithic times as far as 250 km from the entation into villages and towns. As both Binford and W Asia once more became covered with a network of least partly by pack animal caravan. Only down the rivers source, is an early instance of the part played by shipping Steward (in Renfrew, 1969) have indicated, this is not like trade relations (see below). The Altinova valley ofE Ana boats or floats could have been used. A N Mesopotamian/ in what Beale has called the 'by-pass phenomenon'. It was ly to have been a spontaneous development, but rather a tolia, which had been dotted with villages of the Early N Syrian variant of the U ruk culture, with different wheel to be of ever growing importance as the scale of trade ex manifestation of the greater social complexity and central Transcaucasian culture during Early Bronze I and II, made pottery, and stamp seals instead of cylinder seals, panded. At the same time one may assume that small-seal e ization of power which also made larger and more regular (3000-2300), clearly turned into a centrally organized prin known from Gawra, N Iraq, and Judeideh, S Turkey, is trade continued, by which craftsmen's products were lo trading ventures possible. Barth (1967, p. 171 quoted by cipality in~Early Bronze III, with most of the population represented by several copper-working settlements in the cally redistributed. One thus will find beads not only half Adams, 1974) has pointed out that 'entrepreneurs will di grouped around the ruler's fortified storehouse-palace on Altinova valley ofE Turkey (Whallon & Wright, 1970, p. finished in the bead-maker's workshop, but also finished rect their activity preeminently · toward those points ... Nor~untepe (Hauptmann, 1971, p. 85) and neighbouring 70; Esin, 1972, p. 157; Van Loon, 1973, p. 361). This cul as ornaments accompanying the dead in their graves. where the discrepancies of evaluation are greatest, and will Korucutepe deserted except for a possibly religious build ture is notable for the gold, silver, and copper objects found b. Regional or rather interregional trade in which, e.g., attempt to construct bridging transactions which can ex- ing (Van Loon & Giiterbock, 1972). Among the finds, in its graves (Tobler, 1950, pp. 51-97; Van Loon, 1973, pp. - 4 M. N. VAN LOON Trade i11 Westem Asia M. N. VAN LOON Trade in Western Asia 5 360-361; Brandt, in press) - a feature also found in con cessor Lugalbanda, also involved in the campaign against mains of cedar wood, olives, and grapes that were un produced these for their own needs (Adams, 1974, p. 247). temporary graves at Byblos, which are otherwise more Aratta, is said to be the father of Gilgamesh, who opened doubtedly imported from the Mediterranean (Van Zeist in Not until the early second millennium BC was the theo related to Palestinian material (Chehab, 1949/50). Objects up the Zagros juniper forests for Mesopotamian exploita Van Loon, 1968, supplemented by personal communica cratic/autocratic system of state socialism clearly replaced oflapis lazuli, which must have come from Badakhshan in tion by killing their fearful guardian (Hansmatm, 1976). tion). Newly discovered texts show the early importance by private enterprise. Afghanistan, are much more common at sites of this N Roads first cleared by aggression eventually became familiar of Syrian cities as centres of craftsmanship, importing raw Together with many oilier settlements of the Ur III em Mesopotamian Uruk-period culture than in S Mesopota trade routes and pioneers such as Gilgamesh would be gold, silver, linen etc., exporting fmished vessels, ornaments pire Selenkahiye was destroyed toward the end of the third mia itself (Herrmann, 1968). Not surprisingly, sites along come fabled demigods, much like the pioneer of Greek and garments down the Euphrates (Pettinato, 1975, p. 365). millennium (Van Loon, 1975). Such goods as might have the route from Gawra to Afghanistan contain pottery, cop Black Sea trade, Jason, became a hero in Greek mythology. A third epic, concerning Sargon of Akkad, tells how he been traded in bulk-about 4 ml of bitumen, 17 hematite per objects and seals similar to those at Gawra. As late as terminal Early Dynastic II (toward 2600 BC), traversed flooded plains, thorny forests, and rocks of lapis cylinder-seal blanks - were found in llie burned ruins of a The points in common between W Asiatic and Egyptian Susa seems to have dominated the trade in vessels of chlo lazuli and gold to redress the wrongs inflicted upon Meso fortified storehouse which formed a corner of the citadel. material culture, more numerous in this than in any fol rite mined near Y ahya or elsewhere and carved with a potamian merchants by a central Anatolian ruler. Other Other rare commodities turned up in what may have been lowing period, have been persuasively interpreted as evi small number of distinctive motifs (Kohl, 1976). Such late traditions have him cross the Mediterranean to Crete craftsmen's houses on llie citadel-such as over roo pieces dence of far-flung contacts by Frankfort (1951) and Kantor carvings have been found from Ferghana in central Asia to and the country of tin. In greatly ·exaggerated form these of ostrich eggshell, two of which had been made into com (1965). A fortified settlement at Jawa in the Jordanian des Tarut in the Persian Gulf and from the Indus valley to epics seem to reflect the part historically played by the Ak posite statue eyes. These last items had actually been sal ert is connected by its culture to Palestine and Egypt Mari (and possibly Palmyra) in Syria. In Early Dynastic Ill kad dynasty (2334-2154) in reestablishing far-flung trade vaged out of a burned house and buried high up in the (Helms, 1975); its location, however, can only be explain times true steatite vessels seem to have replaced the chlo relations and eliminating intermediaries (Giiterbock, 1934, ruins with the intention of retrieving them at a later date. ed if it was a stop for trans-desert caravans linking the Me rite vessels. To judge by the numbers found at various p. 86; Gadd, 1971, pp. 427-430). During Sargon's reign, it The few houses that had been rebuilt after the fire were sopotamian and Egyptian worlds. Without the help of sites, Adab in Sumer may then have become the centre of is boasted, ships not only from Dilmun but even coming soon abandoned. Numerous in the top levels were clay writing, the Gebel el-Arak knife handle eloquently re distribution. directly from Magatl and Meluhha (probably Oman and figurines of a god riding on a donkey, a deity also revered counts one of the many armed clashes that must have char On the Syrian Euphrates, the Uruk period sites lay de Pakistan/India, Gelb, 1970) moored at the wharf of Akkad by the Assyrian merchants in Anatolia (1950-1850, Ozgiic;, acterized the earliest trading or rather colonizing ventures serted after 3000 BC. Not until about 2400 did S Mesopo (now 470 km from the Persian Gulf but then perhaps only 1965, p. 68, esp. pl. XXVI, 77, described as an onager but (Emery, 1961, pp. 38-39). tamians once more make their presence felt by their cylin 300 km from the mouth of the Euphrates, Oppenheim, undoubtedly a donkey, as it is tame and ridden side-saddle). After the explosive Mesopotamian expansion of the der seals, worshipper statues, and bent-head garment pins, 1969, p. 268; Weiss, 1975, p. 451; Larsen, 1975, p. 57). The Uruk period a clear resistance to Mesopotamian cultural found in the bottom levels of Selenkahiye, 6 and 18 km S implication is that Dilmun could no longer interdict this Ethnohistorical sources indicate that llie impact of trade and, I presume, commercial penetration arose in the N, of its predecessor cities, Habuba Kabira-Tell Qarmas and trade. Under the Ur III dynasty, 2rr2-2005, Mesopotamia can be profound, especially if it takes place between two where the Early Transcaucasian I-ll village culture (3000- Jebel 'Aruda respectively (Van Loon, 1975). Recent Italian imported copper directly from Magan or Oman, but under cultures of differing complexity. By introducing radical 2300) engulfed sites like Korucutepe and Nor:;;untepe in E excavations at Tell Mardikh, 70 km S of Aleppo, have re the Larsa dynasty, 2004-1763, Dilmun once more inter technological improvements, it can create a sudden de Anatolia and Godin in W Iran (Van Loon, 1973, p. 361, vealed trading and other records of the native kingdom of posed itself, supplying copper from Oman and carnelian, mand for new materials and pressure toward producing 374; Buccellati, in press; Hauptmann, 1972, p. rr4; Young, Ebla (2400-2250), Syria's earliest known literate city, on ivory, and pearls from India (Oppenheim, 1954). goods in exchange for which these materials may be ob 1969, p. 1o; Weiss & Young, 1975, p. 15). Further E Susa llie route from the Euphrates valley to the cedar forests and In theW Sargon claims to have possessed and his grand tained: fur in exchange for firearms, among llie 19tl1-cen and its traders, writing in Proto-Elamite, interposed them the Mediterranean (Matthiae, 1975; Pettinato, 1975). son Naramsin claims to have destroyed Ebla and to have tury AD Plains Indians, chlorite bowls in exchange for selves between Mesopotamia and the copper sources of Dilmun in the Persian Gulf and Ebla in Syria were Me reached the Cedar Mountain or Amanus and the Upper copper, among the early fourth millennium BC inhabi central Iran (Ghirshman, 1938), the chlorite sources of E sopotamia's partners in the Early Dynastic III B period Sea or Mediterranean (Oppenheim, 1969, p. 268). In Iran tants ofYahya (Adams, 1974, p. 224 quoting Jablow, 1951 Iran (Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972a), and the lapis lazuli sour (2450-2334), supplying her with goods from the Indian and Anatolia llie archaeological record from 2300 on re and Lewis, 1942; Beale, 1973, p. 140). In the case of the ces of Afghanistan (Herrmann, 1968). Proto-Elamite tab Ocean and from the Mediterranean, respectively (Lam flects the revival of long-distance trade which had stag Plains Indians, this led to the disintegration of tribal organ lets attest to the presence ofSusian traders at Siyalk IV and bert, 1953). Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972b, p. 227) has con nated since 3000 BC (Mellink, 1956, p. 57, 1965, p. rr6; izations and the rise of military societies. In certain African at Yahya IV C. Further E, at the lapis lazuli working centre vincingly argued that Bahrein (part ofDilmun) served as a see above). cases, slave trade accompanied by the introduction of fire ofShahr-i Sokhta I near the Afghan border, a Jemdet Nasr Central Place engaged in the transshipment of goods be 2. Almost impossible to retrieve archeologically is the arms seems to have led to the rise of a mosaic of contending cylinder seal is the only evidence thus far of direct contact tween the Indus valley, SE Iran, and Mesopotamia. Carved way in which trade was organized. From the earliest liter chiefdoms, one of which eventually imposed its hegemony (Lamberg-Karlovsky & Tosi, 1973, p. 38, 51). Sites of the chlorite bowls from Yahya are paralleled at Mohenjo-daro ate times until the end of the Ur III empire about 2000 BC over a number of others (Adams, 1974, p. 244 quoting Jemdet Nasr period (3 100-2900) in Mesopotamia continu and a Persian Gulf seal has been found in Yahya IV B. it appears that merchants were state employees receiving Goody, 1971 ; Kottak, r 972 ; Miller, I 970). ed to receive lapis lazuli from their E neighbours. During Stone anchors, dedicated to temples at Byblos on the Med goods from the temple or palace with instructions to ex Looking at the archaeological and textual evidence from the Early Dynastic I period (2900-2750), however, the im iterranean and Bahrein in the Persian Gulf, attest the ac change them against other goods that were to be delivered late third/early second millennium BC Anatolia, one won portation of lapis seems to have come to a standstill in tivity of sea traders along these coasts from the mid-third to the temple or palace in return (Leemans, 1972/73). Ex ders if a similar interpretation would fit the developments Sumer as well as in Egypt (Herrmann, 1968). to the early second millennium BC (Dunand, 1958, p. 646, change rates between commodities were quoted in weights there: princely seats of power arose all over Anatolia from The quest for lapis lazuli is tl1e central theme in a group 650; Mortensen, 1970, p. 394, 396; date based on Mor of silver. If there may have been room for private enter about 2300 BC (see above); after half a century of preliter of epics recounting the exploits of the first dynasty ofUruk tensen, personal communication). prise - as is suggested by tl1e fluctuating exchange rates -, ate occupation we find Assyrian merchants inhabiting sub (Early Dynastic II, 2750-26oo) against the rulers of Aratta, Texts show that through its seaport Guabba the state of this is not explicitly stated by third-millennium texts. The urbs ofKiiltepe, Bogazkoy, etc. from 1950 to 1750, supply which is situated beyond Anshan (S central Iran. Majidza Lagash-a political as well as an economic rival ofUr-ex new texts from Ebla prove trade and export industry were ing the local princes with luxury garments and tin (needed deh, 1976, has shown that Aratta must be the region of ported textiles, grain, fish, livestock, oil, fat, wood, cop entirely iU: the hands of the king in the outlying parts ofW to manufacture bronze tools and weapons) in exchange for Iblis and Y ahya). At first the Lord of Aratta does not wish per, tin, lead, and silver. In spite of arguments to the con Asia as well as in Mesopotamia (Pettinato, 1975, p. 366). silver and gold; around tl1e time when these colonies dis to accept the grain offered by King Enmerkar ofUruk, but trary (Gurney, 1954), the cedar wood that Lagash exported Most of the state textile, leallier and salted fish industry appear through acts of war, the king of Hattusa (Bogaz a drought forces him to submit and yield up gold, silver, to theE must have come from theW. Selenkahiye, which mentioned in Mesopotamian texts must also have been set koy) establishes himself as 'great king' over the greater lapis lazuli, and carnelian (Kramer, 1952). Enmerkar's sue- is linked to Mesopotamia by the Euphrates, has yielded re- up for export, since Mesopotamian households presumably part of Anatolia. If the military and political balance may

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