Ahi Evran Ünv. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 11,Sayı 4, Aralık 2010 Özel Sayı, Sayfa 61-78 Evidence-based Strategies for Teaching Nature of Science to Young Children Valarie L. AKERSON1, Ingrid WEILAND2, Khemmawadee PONGSANON3, Vanashri NARGUND4 ABSTRACT We provide a research-based model and teaching strategies for teaching nature of science (NOS) to young children (ages 5 to 9). The model describes an iterative teaching cycle that builds from the concrete to the abstract. The authors describe how to embed NOS teaching into existing curricula that do not already include NOS. The authors provide example evidence-based strategies for introducing NOS to young children, for connecting NOS to hands-on and inquiry investigations, and for debriefing the investigations to reinforce NOS connections to science content. The authors include an example of a NOS poster, and a sample list of children‟s literature for use in introducing and reinforcing NOS conceptions. Recommendations are made for the development of further NOS teaching strategies for young children, and for research that determines the most appropriate strategies, as well as the influence of teaching NOS throughout school careers on student NOS conceptions over time. KEYWORDS: Nature of Science, Young Children, Teaching Strategies 5-9 Yaş Arası Öğrencilere Bilimin Doğası Öğretimi İçin Delile Dayalı Stratejiler ÖZET Bu çalışmada, 5-9 yaş arası öğrencilere bilimin doğasını öğretmek üzere hazırlanan araştırmaya dayalı bir model ve öğretim stratejileri sunulmaktadır. Model, somuttan soyuta doğru devam eden döngüsel bir öğretim modelidir. Bu çalışmada, bilimin doğasını içermeyen öğretim programlarına bilimin doğasının nasıl entegre edilebileceği anlatılmaktadır. Araştırmacılar genç öğrencileri bilimin doğasıyla tanıştırmak için, bilimin doğasını farklı yöntemlerle ilişkilendiren ve bilimin doğası ile öğretim programında yer alan içerik bilgisini birleştiren araştırmaya dayalı örnekler sunmaktadırlar. Aynı zamanda örnek bir bilimin doğası posteri ve öğrencilerin bilimin doğasıyla ilgili kavramlarını güçlendirmek için kullanılabilecek örnek bir okuma listesi de çalışmada sunulmaktadır. Genç öğrencilere bilimin doğasını öğretmek üzere öğretim yöntemleri önerileri, bilimin doğasını öğretmek üzere en uygun öğretim yöntemlerini belirleyecek araştırmalar için öneriler ve bilimin doğası öğretiminin öğrencilerin okul 1 Corresponding Author, Assist. Prof. Dr., Indiana University, Indiana, USA, [email protected] 2 Indiana University, Indiana, USA, [email protected] 3 Indiana University, Indiana, USA, [email protected] 4 Indiana University, Indiana, USA, [email protected] 62 Evidence Based Strategies... V. L. Akerson, I. Weiland, K. Pongsanon, V. Nargund gelişimi boyunca bilimin doğası hakkındaki görüşlerinde oluşturacağı etkileri araştırmak üzere öneriler de çalışmada yer almaktadır. ANAHTAR KELİMELER: Bilimin doğası, Genç öğrenciler, Öğretim yöntemleri INTRODUCTION There have previously been questions of whether young children (ages 5-9) could actually conceptualize nature of science (NOS) aspects, yet it is clear from research with these populations in a variety of contexts that young children can indeed, improve their conceptions of NOS toward the accepted views of NOS. For example, Smith, et al (2000) found that elementary students with a teacher who emphasized NOS over the course of their elementary school years improved their NOS conceptions. However, gains in understandings can be made in the short term for young children as well, through classroom science units (Akerson&Volrich, 2006), informal science programs (Akerson& Donnelly, 2010; Quigley, Pongsanon, &Akerson, 2010), and regular classroom teaching over a year (Akerson, Pongsanon, Nargund&Weiland, 2010). These improvements in NOS conceptions have also been made in a variety of teaching contexts, such as urban (Buck, Akerson, Quigley, &Weiland, 2010), suburban at risk schools (Akerson, Pongsanon, Nargund, &Weiland, 2010) and informal science programs (Akerson& Donnelly, 2010; Quigley, Pongsanon, &Akerson, 2010). What exactly are the aspects of NOS that are attainable by young children? Because we are U.S. educators, we consulted the National Science Teachers Association position statement for what should be taught about NOS grades kindergarten through twelfth (NSTA, 2000). These aspects of NOS are that science is tentative but robust, subjective (theory-laden), culturally embedded, creative and imaginative, based on empirical evidence, is a product of observation and inference, and should know the distinction between theory and law. We thought about the kinds of science content that are in the science curricula for young children, and decided to focus our research, and teaching strategies, on improving young children‟s conceptions of all NOS aspects but the relationship between theory and law because that is not in their science curriculum. A review of several studies that focused on improving young children‟s conceptions of NOS shows that students as young as five begin to conceptualize NOS ideas, and older students (e.g. ages 6 to 9) do conceptualize more aspects more readily (Akerson, Buck, Nargund, Pongsanon, &Weiland, 2010). It also shows that some NOS aspects, such as observation and inference, creativity, tentativeness and the empirical NOS are more readily accessible to students than subjectivity or the socio-cultural aspects of NOS. However, these students, especially age 8 and 9, are able to improve their understandings of all NOS aspects through instruction. So what kinds of strategies are effective with young children? From previous research on what works with older populations we have designed strategies that Ahi Evran Ünv. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), Cilt 11, Sayı 4, Aralık 2010 Özel Sayı 63 can be used with young children. In designing NOS instruction for young children we thought that we should use explicit, reflective instruction (Khishfe&Abd-El-Khalick, 2002), and that we should have a mix of contextualized and decontextualized (Clough, 2006) NOS instruction. Explicit reflective NOS instruction draws students‟ attention directly to the emphasized NOS aspects through teachers‟ questions and by asking students to reflect on the science investigations in which they were involved, in other words directly connecting students‟ NOS understandings to the science content. In other words, the NOS aspects need to be explicitly connected to the science investigations that the students are conducting. We also realized that contextualized and decontextualized NOS instruction is effective in helping adults improve their NOS understandings, and so thought that these strategies could be adapted for young children. In decontextualized NOS instruction the teacher introduces NOS aspects in ways that are not connected to science content. These kinds of activities include black box and puzzle solving activities that enable the teacher to draw attention to NOS aspects using familiar and concrete examples, and provides a foundation upon which more contextualized instruction can occur. Contextualized instruction, then, involves embedding NOS instruction into science content by integrating examples of NOS from history of science, or contemporary science tied to the content being taught. For instance, asking students for examples of observations and inferences and the tentative NOS in connection with an investigation of fossils would be an instance of contextualized NOS instruction. Contextualized NOS instruction would allow for in depth context-specific NOS instruction and illustrate to students that NOS is part of all science, not simply a list of terms to memorize. In this paper we describe a cycle for teaching NOS that we have developed through evidence of “what works” with young children. We then provide specific examples of teaching strategies to be used within portions of this NOS teaching cycle. NOS Teaching Trajectory: From Concrete To Abstract While research has clearly shown that young children can adequately learn NOS, it also suggests that they may not learn all aspects of NOS at the same rate. Akerson and Donnelly (2009) noted that some children in their informal science program still held inadequate views of empirical NOS after instruction. Similarly, Quigley et al. noted that only 3 out of 15 students‟ understandings of subjectivity improved and noted little improvement in students‟ understandings of sociocultural NOS. We firmly believe that young children can learn all aspects of NOS (aside, perhaps, from theory versus law), as was demonstrated in Akerson et al. (under review), however, we suggest a trajectory for building students‟ conceptualizations of NOS. We believe that NOS is likely best taught to young children in such a way that begins with the most concrete concepts (i.e., observation and inference) and slowly builds to those that are more abstract (i.e., subjectivity or social and cultural context). To begin teaching NOS with 64 Evidence Based Strategies... V. L. Akerson, I. Weiland, K. Pongsanon, V. Nargund observations and inferences, students are able to use their five senses to make observations about scientific phenomena. Young children can “see” for themselves that science is based on that which is tangible, and learn the distinction between direct observations and inferences based on those observations. Next, students can learn that science is empirical; it is based on evidence that is collected through observations. Once students have had an opportunity to collect data through observations and inferences, they can then be exposed to the tentative nature of science. Again, experiencing tentative NOS can be quite concrete- children can see that their interpretations of results can change, however it is important that children experience these aspects of NOS for themselves while engaging in inquiry. It is after this first-hand engagement that students may begin to understand some of the more abstract aspects of NOS: creativity, subjectivity, social and cultural context, and theory versus law. Children can understand the use of their imagination and creativity to do science when they are given the freedom to plan, implement, and report on their investigations. Teaching subjectivity, social and cultural context, and theory versus law can be facilitated with the use of children‟s literature. In the next section, we explicate a proposed iterative cycle for teaching NOS. The first cycle begins with teaching the most concrete aspects of NOS, and slowly builds to include the more abstract concepts. It is important to note that NOS concepts previously taught should be reinforced through each iteration of the cycle. NOS Teaching Cycle To begin our analysis, we reviewed studies that investigated strategies to teach NOS to young children. Each author reviewed the studies (Akerson&Volrich, 2006); Akerson& Donnelly, 2009; Quigley, Pongsanon&Akerson, 2010; Akerson, Pongsanon, Nargund, &Weiland, under review) separately and coded for strategies that resulted in increased understanding of young children‟s conceptions of NOS. We then discussed our codes and themes that were revealed through our analysis of the studies. Through our discussion, we found that a pattern of teaching emerged, what we term the “NOS Teaching Cycle.” Figure 1 depicts the iterative nature of this cycle, as NOS aspects are introduced, embedded in content, and then reinforced over time. We recommend beginning with more concrete NOS aspects, such as the distinction between observation and inference, and moving toward more abstract, such as the sociocultural NOS as previously introduced aspects are reinforced by continuing to be included in the lessons. Ahi Evran Ünv. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), Cilt 11, Sayı 4, Aralık 2010 Özel Sayı 65 Figure 1. The iterative NOS teaching cycle Research has shown that what we propose as the NOS Teaching Cycle is an effective way to young children about observations and inferences, tentativeness, subjectivity, creativity and imagination, empirical NOS, and the social and cultural embeddedness. This cycle may be particularly effective with young children as they may need support to connect NOS to their previous knowledge and to their personal experiences, as well to review and reinforce concepts regularly. To begin, it is important to familiarize students with the particular NOS aspects addressed in the lesson, as well as any other science content being covered. To be able to conceptualize NOS students need to be aware of the NOS elements, and these introductory activities highlight these aspects in ways that young children can conceptualize these ideas. These introductory activities can include reading children‟s literature, presenting a short demonstration or inquiry project, or using a K-W-L chart (what we Know, what we Want to know, and what we Learned). Once the concepts have been introduced, research has shown that NOS is best taught through inquiry (Akerson& Donnelly, 2009). Following the introductory activity the students should be engaged in a hands-on inquiry activity that enables the teacher and the students to connect the NOS aspects to the investigation. According to the essential features of inquiry (NRC, 1996), students can begin by engaging in an activity to help answer an investigative question. For example, students can make observations and inferences about a toy car as it is pushed across a variety of surfaces. Students record observations and test different each surface; they can then generate explanations about the scientific phenomena and share their results with one another. They can reflect on how they are making observations and inferences, and creating an idea of the kinds of surfaces cars move best on. Finally, as NOS instruction has been most effective when taught explicitly and reflectively, it is imperative to debrief the inquiry. Debriefing should include a discussion of NOS aspects present in the inquiry and questioning that allows students to reflect on how science is conducted. For instance, the teacher can either direct the students to think about 66 Evidence Based Strategies... V. L. Akerson, I. Weiland, K. Pongsanon, V. Nargund various NOS aspects present in the inquiry, or ask students to discuss the aspects they noted (with examples) that were present in their inquiry. We describe specific examples of these strategies in subsequent sections of this paper. Embedding NOS Teaching into Existing Curricula We are aware that at least in the U.S., most early childhood science curricula do not embed NOS in the lessons. Therefore the teacher needs to be able to connect NOS to the lessons within the unit, making connections and designing assessments for student understandings. For instance, we have had experience teaching through the FOSS K-2 Balance and Motion unit (Full Option Science System). This excellent hands-on kit based unit leads students through many interactive explorations of balance and motion that lead students to understand forces related to what helps things balance, and what puts them into motion. However, the teacher would need to help the students identify the components of the investigations that connect them to NOS, such as how they are modifying their designs as well as their ideas of what contributes to items being balanced based on empirical evidence, as being representative of the tentative NOS. Similarly, the teacher can connect the creative NOS by asking them to note that as they are creating designs for what contributes to something spinning, they are creating an understanding for what initiates an item to spin (and to spin the longest, for example). Students can be asked to make observations of their designs, and inferences for factors that contribute to making things roll (and roll “best”). Students can be asked to think about what they have learned about balance and motion that influence how they subsequently design their roller coasters, as an example of the subjective NOS (e.g., that their background knowledge influences how they design their roller coasters). The teacher can ask students to make records of their science content knowledge as well as their NOS aspect knowledge on worksheets or in science notebooks. In these (and other) ways, the teacher can embed NOS into existing science curricula, enabling them to contextualize their NOS instruction into content that their students will learn in their classrooms. In the sections below we will describe particular strategies that we have used to improve young children‟s NOS conceptions. We provide examples for each part of the NOS Teaching Cycle. Introductory Activities as an initial part of the NOS Teaching Cycle To teach NOS aspects it is necessary for teachers to embed them into existing science curricula that in general, do not naturally contain explicit prompts, instruction, or assessments of students‟ NOS understandings. It is certain that most children will not have heard of inferences, or terms like “empirical evidence” or “subjectivity,” or even Nature of Science itself. Therefore the terms need to be introduced to students initially, in a way that connects to former ideas, or through a science lesson that connects the NOS aspects through Ahi Evran Ünv. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), Cilt 11, Sayı 4, Aralık 2010 Özel Sayı 67 investigations. We will describe various ways a teacher can use explicit NOS instruction to introduce, as well as emphasize, NOS aspects. The strategies we share are the use of class discussions, modeling thinking about NOS, using children‟s literature, and the use of science notebooks. Class discussion.We have successfully used a NOS poster that includes the targeted NOS aspects, along with definitions and cartoon drawings, to introduce the NOS terms. This poster (See Figure 2) allows us to (a) introduce the NOS terms, and (b) continue to reference the NOS terms throughout subsequent science lessons. To initially use the poster the teacher holds a conversation with students regarding “the nature of science.” The teacher asks students “What do you think science is? What makes science itself, and not called something like math?” The teacher allows responses, and then states “The nature of science really is what makes science „science.‟ It is the characteristics of science that make it unique to itself.” Then the teacher can read each aspect and definition, and talk about the terms in “kid friendly” language. Of course, this is simply an introduction to the terms, and certainly the students should not be expected to fully conceptualize the ideas. This introduction can come before or after a science investigation. If it comes after a science investigation, then the teacher can use examples from that lesson as she explains the terms. If it comes before a science investigation the teacher can ask students to think about these aspects as they conduct their investigations and use the poster to ask the students to reflect on their investigation, a perfect example of explicit reflective NOS instruction. Modeling thinking about NOS. From the class discussions section above it is clear to see that the teacher plays a strong role in emphasizing NOS through interactions with students. The teacher can use a think aloud strategy to model ways to think about NOS in connection with science activities. For example, again using the NOS poster, and in connection with a science investigation the teacher can model how she thinks about NOS. If we think about an investigation such as students exploring a mystery material to determine whether it is a solid or a liquid, but actually the material has characteristics of both solids and liquids, such as an oobleck, we can illustrate this modeling think-aloud strategy. For example, the teacher can say “Well, I think this material has elements of both solids and liquids. It makes it tough to figure out and put it in one category. I am going to look at my NOS poster. Hmm. I can see that I was making observations of this material, which was my empirical evidence! First I inferred it was a liquid, because it took the shape of the container. Then I inferred it was a solid because I couldn‟t poke my finger through it, and then I inferred it was somehow a solid and a liquid at the same time. Because I was changing my mind about the evidence I was using the tentative nature of science. But I was still creative like a scientist because I was creating an understanding of what this stuff is—it is a solid AND a liquid. Now I have to create a new category because it won‟t fit in the original categories. It is another example of the tentative nature of science! I knew it had characteristics of a solid AND a liquid because I had background knowledge of solids and liquids, which is my subjectivity coming 68 Evidence Based Strategies... V. L. Akerson, I. Weiland, K. Pongsanon, V. Nargund out. Science is amazing!” By reflecting aloud along with the children (we often ask the children to join in on these reflections and add their own ideas) we are modeling thinking about NOS in connection with the content and science investigation that we have just completed. Then in later investigations the teacher does less of the reflecting and passes it along to the students to do more of the reflecting aloud. Children’s literature. Young students are accustomed to having stories read to them by the teacher. The teacher can capitalize on this strategy by using it to introduce and reinforce NOS aspects. For example, we used The Skull Alphabet Book (Pallotta&Masiello, 2002) during an activity on fossils. This book cleverly connects the letters of the alphabet to skulls of animals whose name begins with each letter. Through making observations of clues in the text and in the accompanying drawings the reader infers the animal that the skull belongs to, thus leading directly to a discussion of scientific observation and inference. Such a book also lends itself to a discussion of the role of empirical evidence in the development of scientific knowledge because the skulls represent the data source, or empirical evidence, about which we are making observations and inferences. Indeed, it also lends itself to a discussion of the subjective NOS, as we are not likely to infer animals we are unfamiliar with, which often can be illustrated by animals that may be unfamiliar to students as the teacher reads the book, such as the Narwhal whale. Young students are often familiar with whales, but not often specifically with the Narwhal, and therefore do not infer this animal which then leads to a discussion regarding the reliable, yet tentative NOS. The teacher can provide background knowledge regarding the Narwhal whale, and then discuss with the students how now that they have more information regarding different kinds of whales their inferences may change, just like a scientist may change their inferences by reconsidering the evidence they have. Indeed, this story can also be used to explore scientific creativity as the teacher can lead a discussion of how scientists create an understanding of an animal based on the skull it leaves behind. The students can be lead to discuss how scientists infer missing data, skin color and coverings, and still create a reasonable and reliable, but tentative, picture of the animal. Science Notebooks. The teacher can also use science notebooks with young children. Students can use these notebooks to record data, ideas, and reflections. These reflections can connect to science content as well as to students‟ understandings of NOS aspects. For example, the teacher could ask students to describe in their own words what they believe the NOS aspects mean and hold a class discussion. Student responses could be listed on chart paper that hangs in front of the room. Students could then be asked to record the terms with the definitions they agree with in their notebooks, using the chart to guide them with spelling if they need to. Also, if they are not writing yet, teachers or classroom helpers can record the students‟ ideas in their notebooks, while the students are instructed to illustrate their ideas. These notebooks can then be used as an individual assessment of students‟ conceptions of various NOS aspects. Ahi Evran Ünv. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), Cilt 11, Sayı 4, Aralık 2010 Özel Sayı 69 Teachers can additionally ask students to reflect on the NOS aspects in their science notebooks after investigations. Indeed, student responses to NOS prompts following investigations can be listed on chart paper in front of the classroom and students can be instructed to record in their own notebooks ideas they agree with, or other ideas they had regarding NOS aspects that were present in their investigations. Figure 2. NOS Poster that can be used to introduce or reinforce NOS aspects 70 Evidence Based Strategies... V. L. Akerson, I. Weiland, K. Pongsanon, V. Nargund Inquiry Based Activities If students had not engaged in scientific inquiry prior to learning about NOS, it is definitely important to engage them after introducing students to the NOS aspects. If they have no opportunity to actually investigate phenomena then it will be difficult for them to connect the terminology to experiences, and thus contextualizing their learning in actual science investigations is important. In this section we describe strategies for emphasizing NOS during activities, including the use of hands-on activities, guided to open inquiries, teacher questioning, observation and inference charts, science notebooks, charts/graphs/classifying, and working in teams. Hands on. The science investigations need to be what students engage in, not what teachers engage in via demonstration. These activities need to be hands-on for the students in terms of the students raising questions, collecting data, and making observations and inferences of phenomena. It is through manipulating materials themselves that students can engage in the practice of science, and then later (or even during) reflect on when they were making observations, when they were making inferences, how they were being creative like scientists, when they changed their minds about data, or because they collected new data, and how the background knowledge of those in their groups influenced their interpretations. For example, during an activity in which students make Play- Doh fossils, the students actually create the impressions of an item in a fossil. Then they share these with their peers, who have to determine which item likely made the fossil impression. Students can be asked whether and how they are being creative during such an investigation. They may certainly agree they are being creative when making the fossil, but can also be directed to notice that they are being creative like scientists when they are determining what item was likely to have made the impression in a peer‟s fossil. The teacher can also direct students to notice the kinds of evidence the students are using to make observations and then infer what item was likely used to create the peer‟s fossil. They can also be drawn to notice that they do not know for sure what item was used to create the impression, yet they can make reasonable inferences based on their observations of the data. In this way the teacher is using hands-on investigations to directly connect NOS elements for the students. Guided to Open. Students should engage in a variety of inquiries from guided to open as they are exploring science and connecting NOS to science content. For example, teachers can use guided inquiries to help students conceptualize how to design and carry out an investigation by planning the investigation along with them. The teacher can then use a think-aloud strategy, or help students connect their investigations to NOS ideas by using the NOS poster. When students have experience engaging in guided inquiry the teacher can have them design their own science investigation and with the teacher‟s permission, carry it out. Then, similar to the guided inquiry, students can be asked to think about how and where NOS aspects were present in their work, and also asked to reflect on these NOS aspects through the use of the NOS poster, or record their ideas in their