ETHNIC MINORITIES AND HU- MAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS THE AFRO-COLOMBIAN CASE1 lEonarDo rEalEs* Abstract Racial discrimination, poverty and social exclusion are structural problems that have affected the Colombian ethnic minorities for decades. Among these minority groups, Afro-Colombians experience the highest level of poverty, which is demonstrated by their limited access to education, health, employment, and other social programs and services. In fact, most regions with Afro-Colombian presence endure the worst socio-economic indicators, and the main victims of the internal armed conflict are the Afro-Colombian communities. Hu- man rights violations against Afro-Colombians have been committed by both state and non-state actors. These violations are prohibited by the new Colombian Constitution (approved in 1991) and human rights treaties ratified by the Colombian state. However, their effects on Afro-Colombians have not been exten- sively explored. This paper analyzes in depth the domestic human rights framework that seeks the protection of Afro-Colombians as an ethnic minority. Also, it studies in detail the consequences of racist practices towards the Afro-Colombian communities and the challenges of their struggle for human rights in the frame of the internal armed conflict. The text represents one of the few works of its kind that explains the main aspects of the complex human rights situation of Afro-Colombians throughout the nation’s recent history. Keywords: Afro-Colombians, minorities, rights and discrimination. Resumen La discriminación racial, la pobreza y la exclusión social son problemas estructurales que han afec- tado a las minorías étnicas colombianas por décadas. De los grupos minoritarios del país, los(as) afrocolombianos(as) experimentan el más alto nivel de pobreza, hecho que se demuestra en su limitado acceso a las políticas de educación, salud, empleo y demás servicios públicos y programas sociales. De hecho, las regiones con fuerte presencia afrocolombiana presentan los peores indica- dores socio-económicos y la mayor parte de las víctimas (directas) del conflicto armado interno que afecta a la nación son las comunidades afrocolombianas. Las violaciones de derechos humanos 1 Note: This research paper is based on previous works that I have written as an Afro-Colombian activist and academic. * Ph.D. Candidate, M.A in Economic, Political and International Affairs, B.A in History, and B.A in Political Science. Adjunct Teacher at District University in Bogotá. Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos 22 153 Vol. 22 (1): 153, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Leonardo Reales contra los(as) afrocolombianos(as) han sido cometidas tanto por instituciones del Estado como por actores no-estatales. Dichas violaciones son prohibidas por la Constitución Nacional y por los tratados de derechos humanos ratificados por el Estado colombiano. Sin embargo, los efectos de las mismas siguen sin ser analizados a profundidad. En este texto se estudia en detalle las normas de derechos humanos que buscan proteger a la población afrocolombiana como grupo étnico minoritario. También se estudian las principales consecuencias de las prácticas racistas contra las comunidades afrocolombianas y los retos de éstas en el marco del conflicto armado interno. El artículo se convierte en una de las pocas investigaciones que explica la compleja situación de derechos humanos de las comunidades afrocolombianas en la historia reciente del país. Palabras clave: Afrocolombianos(as), minorías, derechos y discriminación. introduction public and private strategies to eliminate such practices are far from insignificant. In the 1810s the political situation of most Nonetheless, little has been done to address Spanish colonies in what we today call Latin them, as the lack of texts analyzing their America changed. Creole elites wanted to noxious impact on Afro-Colombians gain political power and have control over shows. The purpose of this study is two fold: the economic resources. The Spanish Crown (1) to analyze the human rights framework refused to make substantial changes in its that protects Afro-Colombians as a mi- colonial system, which had been used to nority, and (2) to study the consequences rule the region for more than three hundred of racist practices on them, as well as the years. These elites decided to declare inde- main challenges of their struggle for human pendence from Spain and fight for freedom. rights in the frame of the armed conflict However, their intimidating actions neither that affects the nation. included the abolition of slavery nor promo- ted equality to benefit former slaves and their The text is divided into six parts: First, an descendants. In fact, once independence introduction, in which a general overview was declared most Afro-descendants kept of the Afro-Colombian contemporary suffering the negative consequences of the history is presented; second, prior relevant denigrating discourses and racial divisions research on the topic is outlined; third, an created by the Spaniards and supported analytical framework on the concepts and by the elites. This situation was evident in definitions regarding the Afro-Colombian Colombia, where racist practices persisted communities and their identity is under- throughout the nineteenth and twentieth lined; fourth, the human rights laws that centuries despite the creation of equity laws protect Afro-Colombians as an ethnic and the State’s ratification of most human minority group are studied; fifth, the impact rights treaties. of racist practices and the armed conflict on the Afro-Colombian communities is There is no doubt that economic, social explained; and sixth, a conclusion, in which and political benefits for the nation that the limitations to effectively implement would accrue from the implementation of minority rights in the country and the main 154 22 Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos Vol. 22 (1): 154, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Ethnic minorities and human rights violations the afro-colombian case challenges of Afro-Colombians as an ethnic It is important to emphasize that ma- group are underscored. nifestations of the exclusion of Afro- Colombians, who comprise some 30% of The paper also describes the ineffectiveness the total population, that is, more than of some international human rights treaties twelve million people, can be identified ratified by the Colombian state as regards in their lack of access to key decision- the rights of Afro-Colombians. Although making institutions. Their exclusion is also all human rights treaties have similar im- notorious in their lack of access to labor portance, the paper underlines only those markets and basic living conditions, such covenants and conventions, considering as shelter, safe drinking water, and suitable the (domestic) laws by which they were sanitary conditions (Cimarrón, 2004). The added to the Constitution, related to the extremely disadvantageous human rights Afro-Colombian population as an ethnic situation of Afro-Colombians, which has minority group. been worsened as a result of the conflict actions, indicates that racist practices are It should be underscored that it took almost its main causes. These practices are related two hundred years of republican history to the (prior) research texts and analytical before Afro-Colombian contributions to framework presented below. the country were recognized. It was only in 1991 that the Colombian Congress recog- Previous Research on afro-colombians nized, through the new Political Constitu- tion, and for the first time in history, that Texts from non-governmental organiza- Colombia was a multi-ethnic and pluri- tions and international institutions such cultural nation. Congress that year also as the Inter-American Development Bank, approved Article 55, an affirmative-action the United Nations Development Program law for Afro-Colombians. That Article (UNDP), the UN Economic Commission was ruled through Law 70 of 1993, known on Latin America and the Caribbean and as the ‘Law of the Afro-Colombian Commu- the UN Office of the High Commissio- nities.’ This Law promotes the respect for ner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR) economic, social and cultural rights of the have given accurate portrayals of the Afro-Colombian people as an ethnic group. Afro-Colombian human rights situation Law 70, as well as other laws, establishes a but they have not analyzed in depth the strong human rights framework that not causes of the marginalization of the Afro- only “prohibits” racist practices against Colombian people. Most academics have Afro-Colombians but also “guarantees” also failed by ignoring the importance of their access to health, education, land, em- studies that would help explain the human ployment and all kinds of social programs. rights abuses of which Afro-Colombians Nevertheless, the Afro-Colombian reality are permanent victims. In any case, Mos- reflects an opposite situation in which racial quera (2000), Reales (2005) and Urrea exclusion persists as a definitive factor of (2004) have provided well-documented national life. works on the Afro-Colombian contem- porary history and racist practices against Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos 22 155 Vol. 22 (1): 155, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Leonardo Reales ethnic minorities in the country. Their In Colombian literature, the lack of studies works serve as crucial references for this about measuring the tendency to reject paper since they describe specific cases of Afro-Colombians, racial prejudices or other racist practices against Afro-Colombians institutional discrimination practices is in the frame of the internal armed conflict. evident. As a matter of fact, there are few reports or empirical studies (Reales 2005) Other relevant documents describe the hu- that analyze the suggested relationship man rights treaties that the Colombian sta- between racist practices and social problems te has ratified to protect Afro-Colombians. of Afro-Colombians as an ethnic group. Bello (2002), González (2004), Hopenhayn Corinne Lennox (2006), nonetheless, (2001), Oakley (2001), and Sojo (2001) presents an outstanding article that helps present a general balance of these treaties, explain the disadvantageous human rights although they do not explore how effective situation of Afro-descendants in Latin they have been in practice. The domestic America. Although Lennox’s work is not human rights framework that protects the specifically focused on Afro-Colombians, Afro-Colombian population as a minority her text is a critical source for their study is based on constitutional rights and laws as an ethnic minority group. created to support ethnic groups in the country. This national framework provides Racism and afro-colombians as key definitions that improve the theoretical an ethnic minority: analytical approach of the paper. Institutional reports Framework from the Afro-Colombian Movement Ci- marrón (2004), the Afro-Colombian Plan The following framework provides intellec- of Development (1999), and the United tual justification for the suggested linkage Nations Mission to Colombia (2002) are between systematic racist practices at all also critical sources for the study of Afro- levels and the Afro-Colombians’ socio- Colombians and the impact of the armed economic problems, which are worsened by conflict on them. the impact of the internal armed conflict. This (analytical) framework is based on In terms of the information that shows four relevant terms: racism, racial discri- differences between Afro-Colombians and mination, ethnic minorities, and Afro- the rest of the population, the paper takes Colombians. To improve the explanation into account documents from Diène (2004), of the above linkage, the so-called ‘cycle of Bryan and Sánchez (2003), and Zoninsein racial discrimination’ in Colombia will be (2001). These authors have emphasized that used as a theoretical reference. racist practices exist in the country, based on statistical comparisons between the Afro- The cycle’s theory suggests that in the coun- Colombian people’s living conditions and try a repetitive process has historically exis- the situation of “Whites” and “Mestizos” ted by which ‘Whites’ and ‘Mestizos’ have (light-skinned mixed people). Their texts, discriminated against Afro-Colombians however, have not explained in detail the and indigenous groups, as a result of racist roots of Afro-Colombians’ exclusion. 156 22 Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos Vol. 22 (1): 156, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Ethnic minorities and human rights violations the afro-colombian case ideas that are permanently multiplied by conditions of the Colombian nation.”2 Ra- light-skinned families, public and private cist ideas remain as a complex psychological institutions, the education system and the problem that affects not only ethnic mino- mass media. This cycle shows that racist rities in the country but also Colombian practices not only limit the access of the society as a whole. vast majority of Afro-Colombians to im- portant social services and decision-making Another concept that is extensively used positions but also make worsen their human in the text is racial discrimination, which rights situation. is defined (according to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Although the cycle has not been statisti- Forms of Racial Discrimination), as any cally demonstrated, Mosquera (2000) sug- distinction, exclusion or preference based gests that it produces self-esteem problems on race, color, descent, or ethnic origin, among Afro-Colombians and reduces their which has the purpose or effect of nullifying chances to succeed socio-economically, or impairing the recognition or exercise, academically and politically. The cycle’s on an equal footing, of human rights and theory also highlights that when Afro- fundamental freedoms in the economic, Colombians try to improve their living con- cultural, social, political or any other field ditions by getting better jobs, they are vic- of public life (Article 1. International tims of racial-discrimination practices and Convention on the Elimination of All other serious human rights violations. This Forms of Racial Discrimination). Racial- situation reproduces Afro-Colombians’ discrimination practices are considered exclusion and marginalization, making the (constitutionally speaking) “grave” crimes cycle start over and grow stronger. in Colombia. However, the systematic violation of economic, social and cultural The relevant theoretical concepts used in rights of the Afro-Colombian population the paper are briefly explained as follows: - by both state and non-state actors - and Racism is the arbitrary naturalization of the lack of political will to make effective physical and cultural differences that leads the rights of the people, clearly indicate the people to degrade certain groups through persistence of such denigrating practices social processes (Urrea, 2004). It is im- throughout the country. portant to point out that in Colombia the racist ideology came from the colonial épo- Based on the international protection que and persisted throughout the nation’s regime for minorities and indigenous republican history, in spite of the abolition peoples, the Afro-Colombian population of slavery and the creation of equity laws. In can be accurately classified as an ethnic the early 1920s, in fact, both the Congress and the president of Colombia approved a 2 The Law 114 of 1922 (on immigration) clearly racist law that encouraged the immigration established that “the Executive Power will encour- age the immigration of those individuals that do to the country of white (European) people not represent a concern for the social order because in order to improve the so-called “ethnic of their racial conditions, in order to promote the empowerment of the ethnic conditions of the na- tion”. See Reales, 2001. Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos 22 157 Vol. 22 (1): 157, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Leonardo Reales minority. But who is a minority and who is territories, or parts of them. They are deter- indigenous? Do most Afro-Colombians see mined to preserve their territories in accor- themselves as an ethnic minority? There dance with their own cultural patterns and is no universally accepted definition of values (Martinez, 1986). Lennox, (2006) “minority” or “indigenous peoples” either assures that neither definition has proved in law or in practice (Lennox, 2006). The satisfactory to all stakeholders. For example, United Nations has intended to be a leader many experts feel that the application of in opening discussion on these particular minority rights should not be limited to issues, with the UN Sub-Commission on citizens, as Capotorti argues. Other authors the Promotion and Protection of Human are concerned that in linking the concept Rights (notably previously called the UN of indigenous communities and peoples to Sub-Commission on the Prevention of a connection with pre-invasion and pre- Discrimination and the Protection of Mi- colonial societies, Martinez is reflecting norities) appointing independent experts a notorious bias towards the historical since the late 1960s to offer suggestions. experiences of colonialism in the Americas. Francesco Capotorti proposed a definition The international minority rights fra- of ‘minorities’ and José Martínez an early mework is embodied in three key texts: definition of indigenous peoples. Capotorti Article 27 of the ICCPR, Article 30 of the (1991) recommended that for the purposes Convention on the Rights of the Child of the application of the International (CRC) and the UN Declaration on the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Rights of Persons Belonging to National, (ICCPR),3 the concept minority may be Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Mino- taken to refer to a group numerically smaller rities (UNDM). The ICCPR has been to the rest of the population of the State, ratified by more than 150 states and the whose members, being nationals of the CRC by almost 2004; while the UNDM is State, possess ethnic, religious or linguistic a non-legally binding soft law text, it was characteristics differing from those of the unanimously adopted by the UN General rest of the population. Assembly in 1992. Martínez (1986) defines indigenous peoples Article 27 of the ICCPR (and Article 30 as those which, having a clear historical of the CRC5) entitles persons belonging continuity with pre-invasion societies to minorities to practice their culture, lan- that developed in their territories, consi- guage or religion, including in community der themselves distinct from other sectors with the other members of their group. of the societies now prevailing in those 4 Accurate as of May 2007. Note: These human rights treaties have been ratified by the Colombian state. 3 This Covenant holds (Article 27) that “In those 5 Article 30 states: “In States in which ethnic, reli- States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minori- gious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous ties exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall origin exist, a child belonging to such a minority or not be denied the right, in community with the other who is indigenous shall not be denied the right, in members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, community with the other members of his or her to practice their own religion, or to use their own group, to enjoy his or her own culture, or to use his language.” or her own language.” 158 22 Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos Vol. 22 (1): 158, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Ethnic minorities and human rights violations the afro-colombian case The UNDM draws on Article 27 and Organization (ILO) Convention 169 recog- other human rights laws and recognizes nizes that self-identification as indigenous that minorities have the right: to exist; or tribal shall be regarded as a fundamental to non-discrimination; to participate in criterion for determining the groups to decision-making that affects minorities which the provisions of the Convention or the regions in which they live; to par- apply. The principle of self-identification ticipate effectively in political, economic, has now become a normative principle for social and cultural life; to education that both the minority rights and indigenous reflects their identity; to maintain their rights regimes.7 own associations and peaceful contacts across borders with other members of their Some ethnic groups have found it easier group; and to participate in progress and than others to make these self-identification development in their country. proclamations. The concepts of ‘indigenous peoples’ and ‘minorities’ are not as universal While it is accepted that indigenous as they appear, each rooted in a particular peoples can use the minority protection time and space: ‘indigenous peoples’ emer- regime, other minorities like Afro-Colom- ging from a social movement dominated bian communities are limited to minority by actors in the Americas since the 1970s; rights protection. Consequently, self-iden- and ‘minorities’ from the experiences of tification as either a minority or indigenous bilateral and multilateral treaties in Europe is very important. Being a ‘minority’ or since the 17th century (See Lennox, 2006)). ‘indigenous’ means being able to make cer- It should not be surprising if the terms tain rights claims upon states. It is for this do not fit as well in other socio-political reason that states frequently have tried to spaces. Where the concepts ‘minority’ or avoid recognition of groups as ‘minorities’ ‘indigenous peoples’ do not have common or ‘indigenous peoples’ (Lennox, 2006). currency in national or regional discourses, ethnic groups seeking to utilize these terms It should be emphasized that Article 27 of for the purpose of accessing international the ICCPR applies only to those States in protection standards may find it awkward which persons belonging to ethnic, reli- or difficult to do so. gious and linguistic minorities exist (empha- sis added). In order to address this issue, the The existing categories may also seem un- Human Rights Committee (HRC), which satisfactory in their meaning. For example, is the UN Treaty Body with responsibility the meaning of the term ‘minority’ can for reviewing the implementation of the have negative connotations, depending ICCPR, argues that the existence of mi- on etymology and/or socio-political usage norities in a given State does not depend (Lennox, 2006). Other groups may feel they upon a decision by that State but must be simply are ‘peoples’ without wanting also established by objective criteria.6 Similarly, to be considered ‘indigenous’, a concept the “well-known” International Labour that may also be perceived as denoting 6 Human Rights Committee, General Comment on The 7 This is recognized also in the inverse (in that all indi- Rights of Minorities. New York: United Nations, 1994. viduals have the right to not identify as a minority). Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos 22 159 Vol. 22 (1): 159, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Leonardo Reales communities that are culturally backward Some Afro-Colombians feel a negative and undeveloped. These concepts are not connotation to the concept ‘minorities’ in power-neutral: to be an ‘ethnic minority’ or the sense that is seen as less empowering, ‘indigenous people’ in the meaning of the implying weaknesses on the part of so-na- term in international human rights law is med groups. In Spanish-speaking countries to be a distinct and implicitly less powerful like Colombia, ‘minorías’ (‘minorities’) is section of the population of a state requiring often perceived as a term that “minimizes” some special protection. This idea may not the socio-economic, cultural and political sit well with community leaders who seek problems of marginalized groups. Hearing to empower their fellow members, as ha- comments like “Afro-Colombians may ppens with some Afro-Colombian activists have many problems, but they are just a (Reales, 2005). minority, and what the country needs is to solve the problems of the entire population” The success in pushing the normative inter- is a common occurrence in Colombia. pretation of the right to self-determination Although the language of ‘communities’ is indicative of the potency of the agency or ‘people’ clearly resonates most for Afro- of minorities and indigenous peoples Colombian activists and best represents themselves. Their actions are reshaping the sense of solidarity they seek to create,8 interpretations of the concepts of ‘minority’ Afro-Colombian human rights advocates and ‘indigenous peoples’ and are changing are currently promoting the strengthening the landscape of regional human rights of an Afro-Colombian consciousness as an protection regimes. They have been aided ethnic minority group. This consciousness in part by international and regional human is related not only to the benefits that some rights mechanisms and actors that have Afro-Colombian leaders and activists see contributed by opening space (sometimes in in the use of the domestic human rights the face of state opposition) for a discourse framework but also to the Afro-Colombian to emerge around these “new” identities identity-building process.9 and rights. In short, much of the advocacy of Afro- It is important to underscore that in Co- Colombian activists is now focused on taking lombia, as in most Latin American coun- advantage of the existence of a domestic tries, the term ‘minority’ has been deemed human rights framework to reflect their par- inappropriate or negative. For instance, ticular interests as an ethnic minority. They the use of the concept to denote numerical continue to strive to shape the discourse on smallness may seem “illogical” given that their rights while using their identity as a po- Afro-Colombians are such a large popu- litical tool. Nevertheless, Afro-Colombians lation in the country, totaling more than recognize that there is still much work 12 million people (out of some 40 million to be done in terms of self-identification Colombians). The notion of being a nume- 8 Juan Mosquera, Director of the National Movement rical ‘minority’ is certainly debatable when Cimarrón. Interview with the author, Bogotá, June describing such magnitude of people. 2005. 9 This process is extensively explained in the follow- ing pages. 160 22 Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos Vol. 22 (1): 160, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Ethnic minorities and human rights violations the afro-colombian case throughout Colombia, since the pull factor defining the Afro-Colombian population is for many Afro-Colombian persons to self- undoubdtely relevant at both human rights identify as “Whites” or “Mestizos” remains. and political levels. This historical factor obviously comes from the racist elites’ idea of promoting the “whi- According to the Afro-Colombian Plan of tening” of the entire population as strategy Development (1999), which was one of the to improve the so-called ethnic conditions of first “ethnic development” official texts in the nation. This is perhaps the main reason the country, the term Afro-Colombian popu- why creating a strong socio-political incen- lation refers not only to the people physically tive to “belong” to the Afro-Colombian identified as ‘black’, but also to those persons ethnic group continues to be one of toughest whose African background is evident as challenge for Afro-Colombian leaders. regards to their cultural expressions. This official text states that the concepts ethnic Who are the afro-colombians? and cultural may be utilized interchangea- bly when defining the Afro-Colombian population and other minority groups. The experiences of Afro-descendants across The same document establishes that both Colombia are complex and diverse, even the phenotype and cultural characteristics when most of them have historically remai- should always be taken into account when ned (equally) ignored by the Colombian locating, counting and evaluating the Afro- state. The Afro-Colombian population Colombian population as an ethnic group. ranges from a large numerical “majority” in coastal regions or other territories they have According to the State, the percentage settled in since escaping slavery, to a small of Afro-Colombians has changed in the numerical minority in other zones. There last fifteen years. In the 1993 Census, are variations in tradition (and even in Afro-Colombians comprised the 1.6% of language) and they descend from different the population. In 1999, the State said tribal groups across Africa (Minority Rights they were the 30% of the population, and Group International, 1995). Some Afro- after the 2005 Census, the State pointed Colombian leaders think, however, that out that they comprised 10% of the total they have been (and are being) successful population. These figures have varied due in forging a common identity under the to the lack of self-identification that has rubric of all being Afro-descendants, bea- affected Colombian society for decades. ring the same negative legacy of slavery and Most Afro-Colombians defend that they racism that their ancestors began fighting comprise at least 30% of Colombians (more centuries ago. than 12 million people). It should be underlined how important self- identification can be for Afro-Colombians In order to “make it easier” to identify Afro- as an ethnic (minority) group. As suggested Colombians based on their appearance, above, being a minority (constitutionally) Mosquera (2000) suggests dividing them into means being able to make certain rights three groups: Afro-Creoles, Afro-Mestizos claims upon the State. In other words, and Afro-Indigenous. Afro-Creoles are those Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos 22 161 Vol. 22 (1): 161, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304) Leonardo Reales who keep a similar phenotype as of black The heritage and history of the Palenque- Africans. These Afro-Colombians were ros has also been ignored, even when the (are) called ‘Negroes’ by most “Whites” and UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural “Mestizos” in the country. Most Afro-Creoles Organization (UNESCO) declared this live in the coastal regions as well as in highly Afro-Colombian community as a patri- populated cities. mony of humanity. The Palenqueros live in Palenque de San Basilio, a small town Afro-Mestizos are ‘mixed people’ of (white) founded by escaped slaves four centuries European and (black) African origin. In ago, which is well-known for being the the colonial époque they were called ‘mu- first free town in the Americas. Central lattos’, an offensive term that is still used for this community is the language of Pa- by some Colombians. Most Afro-Mestizos lenquero, the only Creole language in the live in the Caribbean region, even though Americas comprising a Spanish basis with many of them are settled in populated cities some characteristics of Bantu languages (De too. Afro-Indigenous are those who have Friedemann, 1993). The Palenqueros’ lan- African and Indigenous background. They guage constitutes a vital factor reinforcing live in the valleys of the Caribbean region. ethnic and socio-political cohesion among It should be noted, however, that most of community members. these people neither identify themselves as Afro-Colombian nor as indigenous, due The Palenqueros are not only threatened by to internalized racism practices that affect the market transformation, which shrinks Colombian society. local production modes, but also because the Colombian internal armed conflict is Two Afro-Creole communities are always affecting their surroundings. Outside their subject of special attention when defining small town, the Palenqueros are commonly Afro-Colombians as an ethnic group: the subjected to racial discrimination and Raizales and the Palenqueros. As the Colom- ethnic stereotyping leading to a denial of bian Ministry of Interior (1998) underscores, their cultural values. As UNESCO (2005) the Afro-Colombian Raizales (in San Andrés underlines, the increasing influence of Island) are a “unique” ethnic community in commercial media and unsuited basic edu- the country. The Raizales speak both bandé (a cation and high school curricula are rapidly language of African origin) and English, and eroding the community’s heritage, which have religious traditions that are not practiced leads to cultural homogenization. anywhere else in the country. Despite the state recognition of the Raizales, their people are In summary, Afro-Colombians are a “diver- permanent victims of racist practices that have se” ethnic minority group. Their ancestors produced internalized racism problems among were (black) African slaves from several them. Some Raizales do not even speak Spa- ethnic groups in Africa, who were brutally nish, but they still hear from intellectuals that brought to the country against their will. their (nation’s) mother land is Spain, which As a direct result of racial discrimination tends to negatively affect their heritage as an and other serious human rights violations ethnic community (Mitchell, 2002). against them, many Afro-Colombians were 162 22 Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos Vol. 22 (1): 162, enero-junio, 2011 (ISSN: 1659-4304)