Project Gutenberg's Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by B. H. Roberts This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: Outlines of Ecclesiastical History Author: B. H. Roberts Release Date: June 22, 2016 [EBook #52391] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINES OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY *** Produced by the Mormon Texts Project (http://mormontextsproject.org), with thanks to Renah Holmes for proofreading. OUTLINES OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY BY ELDER B. H. ROBERTS AUTHOR OF "The Life of John Taylor" "The Gospel" "New Witness for God" "Missouri Persecutions" "Rise and Fall of Nauvoo," etc. THIRD EDITION SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. 1902. DEDICATION TO THE SEVENTIES: THAT BODY OF MEN UPON WHOM—UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES— DEVOLVES THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PREACHING THE GOSPEL, AND DEFENDING THE TRUTH IN ALL THE WORLD, THIS WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED. A WORD WITH STUDENTS AND TEACHERS. Before you take up the study of OUTLINES OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, I beg leave to call your attention to the structure of the work, and the purpose for which it was written. First, then, as to its structure. The work is divided into four parts, each with a distinct idea running through it. Part I deals with THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH through the ministry of Messiah and his apostles; Part II with THE APOSTASY, brought about through the severe persecution to which the early saints were subjected, the rise of false teachers, changing the ordinances of the gospel, intermingling pagan philosophy with Christian doctrine, and a transgression of the laws of God; Part III deals with "THE REFORMATION," treating it, however as a revolution instead of a reformation since the so-called reformation by no means re-established primitive Christianity, either in its form or essence, but it did overthrow the power of the Catholic Church in the greater part of Western Europe, gave larger liberty to the people, and thus prepared the way for the great work which followed it—the introduction of the Dispensation of the Fullness of Times; Part IV treats of THE RESTORATION OF THE GOSPEL, in the aforesaid dispensation, through the revelations which God gave to the Prophet Joseph Smith. The parts above enumerated are separated into sections, these subdivisions being determined by the several subjects into which the main idea of the respective parts naturally divides. The sections are again separated into topics, the titles of which are printed in bold-face type, and the paragraphs are numbered. These divisions, it is believed, will better enable the student to discern the relation of the respective parts to the main subject, and at the same time afford a convenient division for the assignment of lessons to classes. Ordinarily it will be found that a section will be sufficient for a lesson for either a class or quorum; but in some instances two of the shorter sections may be taken for a lesson; but some of the longer sections should be divided into two or more. At the end of each section will be found a collection of notes bearing upon the important points treated in the text of the work, at which place reference will be found to the note at the end of the section. The author cannot, in his opinion, too emphatically urge upon the student the importance of turning to the notes to which he is directed in the text and reading them. They will be found to throw additional light upon the subject treated in the text, either by giving the statement of a recognized authority, supplying pointed argument—with which it has been thought best not to burden the body of the work—or giving illustrations to the statement made in the text. Another purpose for placing these notes at the end of the sections has been to arouse an interest in the works of the authors quoted; that the students of this text book may be induced to delve deeper into the study of Ecclesiastical History than a perusal of these pages will enable them to do. And here let the author confess, while he believes he is presenting a very valuable collection of facts to those who will take up the study of his work—yet if the study of these pages shall result in merely awakening in the minds of the elders and the youth of Israel an interest in the subject, he will account the objects of his efforts successfully attained. At the end of each section also will be found Review Questions, covering the main points treated in the text and in the notes. It is hoped that they will be found useful in conducting class exercises, and to the private student who wishes to ascertain if he has mastered the subject matter of each section. Let him put to himself the questions found in the review at the end of the section, when completing it, and if he can give a satisfactory answer to each one, the author feels assured that the student has mastered the salient points. The purpose of the work is two-fold: First, it is to sustain the position taken by the church of Christ in the last days. What that position is may be readily discerned by the very first revelation the Lord gave to Joseph Smith. In answering the young prophet's question—which of all the sects of religion was acknowledged of him as his church and kingdom— the Lord said they were all wrong; that all their creeds were an abomination in his sight; that those professors were all corrupt; that they drew near to him with their lips, but their hearts were far from him; that they taught for doctrine the commandments of men—having a form of godliness, but denying the power thereof.[1] It has been to bring together the historical evidences of the truth of this divine announcement that, in part, this work has been written; and therefore prominence has been given to those facts of history which support that announcement. But no fact has been suppressed that has a tendency to support the opposite view. No such fact either of history or prophecy exists. The whole stream of evidence proves that there has been a universal apostasy from the religion taught by Jesus Christ and his apostles; and the existing differences between the present teachings of "Christendom" and the doctrines of the scriptures is a proof so palpable that it admits of no contradiction. As this position of the church is one which the seventies and elders will have to maintain against all the world, it is of first importance that they become familiar with those facts of history and of prophecy that will enable them to maintain that position intelligently and successfully. {iv} {v} The second purpose of the work is to teach the principles of the gospel. This, the author is convinced, can best be done in connection with their history. Relate the historical events which resulted in the introduction and establishment of the gospel and the church of Christ; then in all the centuries from the second to the tenth show how the doctrines of Messiah were departed from, how the ordinances were changed and the laws of God transgressed; relate the principal events of the sixteenth century revolution—miscalled the "Reformation"—and point out how that revolution, however salutary in bringing to pass an enlargement of popular liberty, failed to re-establish the gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ, or re-organize the church as at first founded by Messiah; then relate the events connected with the restoration of the gospel through the revelations given to the great prophet of the Dispensation of the Fullness of Times, Joseph Smith— and in so doing you are not only teaching the interesting facts of Ecclesiastical History to your students, but at the same time you are making them acquainted with the principles of the gospel. Under such a presentation the students, without being conscious of it, perhaps, will examine those principles under a variety of circumstances. They will see them stated in connection with the leading events of the Messiah's life; they will see them corrupted by an apostate church; they will hear them discussed by men during the attempt at Reformation; and after witnessing the unavailing efforts of the "Reformers" to re-establish the gospel and the church of Christ, they will see how the heavens were opened and every principle, doctrine, ordinance, law, officer and institution known to the church of Christ, restored. Such a presentation of the principles of the gospel, we repeat, must lead to a very comprehensive understanding of them, and such is one of the purposes of this work, and one which the author hopes will give it a claim upon the attention of all those desiring information on the subject of the gospel, as well as to the quorums of seventies and elders to whom we believe it will be of special service. Before the work went to press the manuscript was submitted to a committee of brethren appointed by the First Presidency. Elders John Nicholson, George Reynolds and James E. Talmage constituted that committee. The author is very much indebted to them for their patient consideration of his manuscript, and for the very valuable suggestions and corrections made by them. They reported favorably to the First Presidency on the work, and it is now presented to the students of Ecclesiastical History—in which the church of Christ should abound—in the hope that it will be of service to them in their researches in this most interesting department of knowledge. This, the fifth edition, is uniform with the previous edition, in every respect. The Publishers Footnotes 1. Pearl of Price, page 85. CONTENTS DEDICATION INTRODUCTION PART I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH PART II. THE APOSTASY PART III. THE REFORMATION PART IV. THE RESTORATION OF THE GOSPEL INDEX PART I. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH. SECTION I. 1. Birth of Messiah.—Jesus Christ, the Son of God and Savior of the world, was born, most probably, in the year of Rome 753; at a period of the year corresponding to our month of April (see notes 1, 2, end of section). The place of his birth was Bethlehem [Beth-le-hem],[1] a small town about four miles south of Jerusalem. The birth-place of Messiah was foretold by Micah [Mi-kah], the prophet, more than seven hundred years before the event, in the following prophecy: But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah [Ef-ra-tah], though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting.[2] 2. Parentage of Christ.—Messiah was born of the virgin Mary, a descendant of David, and the espoused wife of Joseph, a carpenter in the little village of Nazareth [Naz-a-reth], who, notwithstanding his humble station in life, was also a descendant of the royal house of David. An angel appeared unto Mary previous to her conception, and thus addressed her: Hail thou that art highly favored, the Lord is with thee: blessed art thou among women. And when she saw him, she was troubled at his saying, and cast in her mind what manner of salutation this should be. And the angel said unto her, Fear not, Mary: for thou hast found favor with God. And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shall call his name JESUS. He shall be great, and shalt be called the Son of the Highest: and the Lord God shall give unto him the throne of his father David: and he shall reign over the house of Jacob forever; and of his kingdom there shall be no end. Then said Mary unto the angel, How shall this be, seeing I know not a man? And the angel answered and said unto her, The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee: therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee, shall be called the Son of God. * * * And Mary said: Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to thy word.[3] 3. These two, the mother of Jesus and her betrothed husband, had left their home in Nazareth to enroll their names as members of the house of David, in a census which had been ordered by the Emperor Augustus, and while at Bethlehem Mary was delivered of her son. The enrollment ordered by the emperor had called so many strangers into the little town of Bethlehem that on the arrival of Joseph and Mary there was no room at the inn for them, and they had to take up quarters in the stable adjacent. There, among the hay and straw spread for the food and rest of the cattle, Christ was born. (Note 2, end of section.) 4. The Angelic Announcement.—The birth of Christ was announced to a few shepherds watching their flock by night —about a mile distant from the village of Bethlehem—by an angel, surrounded about by the glory of God, who said: Fear not: for, behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people. For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, which is Christ the Lord. And this shall be a sign unto you; ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger. And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host, praising God, and saying, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men.[4] A visit to the village confirmed the strange proclamation of the angel—they found the mother and child. 5. The Inquiry of the Magi.—Not alone by voice of angels was the birth of Messiah announced, but "wise men from the east" who had seen his star in the firmament came to Jerusalem about the time of his birth, inquiring—"Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him."[5] 6. Nor were signs of Messiah's birth seen alone on the eastern hemisphere; to the people of the western hemisphere signs were also given; "a new star did appear," according to the words of the Nephite prophets, at Zarahemla; the Nephites saw it and to them, as well as to the wise men of the east, a star announced the birth of him who was to be King of the Jews[6] and the Savior of the world. Another sign was given to the Nephites, which had also been predicted by their prophets; the night before[7] Jesus was born remained beautifully light on the western hemisphere. This event is thus recorded in the Book of Mormon: {11} {12} {13} And it came to pass that the words which came unto Nephi were fulfilled, according as they had been spoken; for behold at the going down of the sun, there was no darkness; and the people began to be astonished, because there was no darkness when the time of night came. * * * There was no darkness in all that night, but it was light as though it was midday. And it came to pass that the sun did rise in the morning again, according to its proper order; and they [the Nephites] knew that it was the day that the Lord should be born, because of the sign which had been given.[8] 7. The Alarm of King Herod.—The inquiry made by the "wise men" from the east concerning the one who was "born King of the Jews," alarmed the jealousy of Herod, and learning from the chief priests and scribes that Bethlehem was the place where the deliverer of Israel was to be born, he sent the wise men there, strictly charging them to search diligently, and when they had found the child to bring him word that he too might worship him. On the way to Bethlehem the star they had seen in the east went before them until it stood over where the child was. They found the babe with Mary his mother and they worshipped him, giving him presents of gold and frankincense and myrrh. They were commanded of God in a dream, however, not to return to Herod, so they departed into their own country another way. 8. Joseph, too, after the departure of the wise men, was warned in a dream to flee out of the land, for Herod would seek the young child to destroy him. He was commanded to go into Egypt and remain there until the Lord should call him to return. In obedience to these divine commandments, Joseph took the mother and child and fled in the night into Egypt. 9. Herod's wrath knew no bounds when he found that the wise men had not obeyed him; and in order that he might not be baffled in his determination to destroy the one he feared would supplant himself or his posterity in the throne of Israel, he sent out an edict commanding that all the children in Bethlehem two years old and under should be slain. Then was fulfilled the prophecy of Jeremiah: In Rama [Ra-ma] was there a voice heard, lamentation, and weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children, and would not be comforted because they were not.[9] (See note 3, end of section.) 10. Death of Herod.—(note 4 end of section). After Herod's death, Joseph was again visited, in a dream, by an angel, who commanded him to return with the child and his mother into the land of Israel; for they who had sought the young child's life were dead. Then was fulfilled that which was spoken by the prophet of the Lord, (Hosea), "Out of Egypt have I called my son." Joseph obeyed the commandment, but as he approached Judea and learned that Archelaus [Ar- ke-la-us] the son of Herod reigned in his father's stead, he was fearful and instead of remaining in Judea, he went into Galilee [Gal-i-lee] and dwelt in the little town of Nazareth—his former home—"that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets, He shall be called a Nazarene"[10] [Naz-a-reen]. NOTES. 1. The Year of Messiah's Birth.—"The Birth of Christ was first made an era, from which to reckon dates," says the learned translator of Dr. Mosheim's Institutes,—Murdock—"by Dionysius Exiguus, [Di-o-nish-i-us Exs-ig-u-us] about A. D. 532. He supposed Christ to have been born on the 25th of December, in the year of Rome 753, and this computation has been followed in practice to this day; notwithstanding the learned are well agreed that it must be incorrect." It will be seen, however, from what follows, from the same author, that all is uncertainty with the learned in respect to this subject: "To ascertain the true time of Christ's birth, there are two principal data afforded by the Evangelists: I. It is clear, from Matt. ii: 1, etc., that Christ was born before the death of Herod the Great, who died about Easter, in the year of Rome 749 or 750. Now, if Christ was born in the December next before Herod's death, it must have been in the year of Rome 748 or 749; and, of course, four, if not five years anterior to the Dionysian or Vulgar era: II. It is probable, from Luke iii: 1, 2, 23, that Jesus was 'about' thirty years of age in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar. Now, the reign of Tiberius may be considered as commencing at the time he became sole emperor, in August of the year of Rome 767; or (as there is some reason to suppose that Augustus made him partner in the government two years before he died), we may begin his reign in the year of Rome 765. The fifteenth year of Tiberius will therefore be either the year of Rome 781 or 779. From which deduct 30, and we have the year of Rome 751 or 749 for the year of Christ's birth; the former two and the latter four years earlier than the Dionysian computation. Comparing these results with those obtained from the death of Herod, it is generally supposed the true time of Christ's birth was the year of Rome 749, or four years before the Vulgar era. But the conclusion is not certain, because there is uncertainty in the data. (1.) It is not certain that we ought to reckon Tiberius' reign as beginning two years before the death of Augustus. (2.) Luke says 'about thirty years of age.' This is indefinite and may be understood of twenty-nine, thirty, or thirty-one years. (3.) It is not certain in which of the two years mentioned Herod died; nor how long before that event the Savior was born. Respecting the month and day of Christ's birth, we are left almost wholly to conjecture." It will be demanded on what authority I have gone counter to the conclusions of the learned on this subject by keeping to the Dionysian date,—so far, at least, as the year is concerned. My answer is that in the revelation on Church government in the Doctrine and Covenants (sec. xx), the following in respect to the rise of the Church is given: "The rise of the Church of Christ in these last days, being one thousand eight hundred and thirty years since the coming of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ in the flesh, it being regularly organized and established agreeable to the laws of {14} {15} {16} our country, by the will and commandments of God, in the fourth month, and on the sixth day of the month, which is called April." I believe that this—better than any other authority, fixes the time of the birth, or the "coming of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ in the flesh;" and that, as to the year at least, agrees with the Dionysian computation. It must be remembered that this revelation in section twenty of the Doctrine and Covenants was given before the Church was organized—at sundry times between the first and the sixth of April—and that the prophet was instructed to organize the Church on the sixth day of April, 1830, hence it was not mere chance that determined the day on which that organization took place, (History Joseph Smith, "Millennial Star Supplement" to vol. xiv, p. 22) a fact that is significant in view of the above considerations and those which follow in note 2.—Roberts. 2. The Day of Messiah's Birth.—Strictly speaking, if this Church was organized "one thousand eight hundred and thirty years since the coming of our Lord and Savior in the flesh," then the sixth of April must have been the anniversary of the Savior's birthday. If the organization of the Church had been before or subsequent to that date, if only by one or any number of days, the great event would have been more or less than one thousand eight hundred and thirty years by just so many days. [This argument also holds good as to the year of Christ's birth.] Options formed by the study of chronological events may or may not be accurate. But we would scarcely think the Lord would make any mistake about dates. Least of all he who was born on that day, and on that day thirty-three years later was crucified.—Joseph F. Smith. Let us inquire if the day observed by the Christian world as the day of His [Christ's] birth—the 25th of December—is or is not the real Christmas day. A great many authors have found out from their researches, that it is not. I think that there is scarcely an author at the present day that believes that the twenty-fifth of December was the day that Christ was born on * * * It is generally believed and conceded by the learned who have investigated the matter, that Christ was born in April. * * * It is stated that according to the best of their [the learned] judgment from the researches they have made, Christ was crucified on the sixth of April. That is the day on which this Church was organized. But when these learned men go back from the day of his crucifixion to the day of his birth, they are at a loss, having no certain evidence or testimony by which they can determine it.—Orson Pratt. In support of Elder Pratt's contention relative to the uncertainty of Christian scholars as to the day on which Jesus was born, I quote the statement of Rev. Charles F. Deem, author of "The Light of the Nation," and president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy. "It is annoying to see learned men use the same apparatus of calculation and reach the most diverse results." In a foot note at page 32, in "Light of the Nation," he refers to fifteen different authors all of whom are writers of note, who give different years for the birth of Christ varying from B. C. 1 to B. C. 7 3. Humble Nativity of Messiah.—In the rude limestone grotto attached to the inn as a stable, among the hay and straw spread for the food and rest of the cattle, weary with their day's journey, far from home, in the midst of strangers, in circumstances so devoid of all earthly comfort or splendor that it is impossible to imagine a humbler nativity, Christ was born. Distant but a few miles, on the plateau of the abrupt and singular hill now called Jebel Fureidis or "Little Paradise Mountain," towered the palace—fortress of the great Herod. The magnificent houses of his friends and courtiers crowded around its base. The humble wayfarers, as they passed near it, might have heard the hired and voluptuous minstrelsy with which its feasts were celebrated, or the shouting of the rough mercenaries whose arms enforced obedience to its despotic lord. But the true King of the Jews—the rightful Lord of the universe—was not to be found in palace or fortress. They who wear soft clothing are in kings' houses. The cattle stables of the lowly caravan- serai were a more fitting birthplace for him who came to reveal that the soul of the greatest monarch was no dearer or greater in God's sight than the soul of his meanest slave; for him who had not where to lay his head; for him who, from his cross of shame, was to rule the world!—Canon Farrar. 4. Character of Herod.—Now some there are who stand amazed at the diversity of Herod's nature and purposes; for when we have respect to his magnificence, and the benefits which he bestowed on all mankind, there is no possibility for even those who had the least respect for him, to deny, or not openly confess, that he had a nature vastly beneficent; but when anyone looks upon the punishment he inflicted and the injuries he did, not only to his subjects, but to his nearest relatives, and takes notice of his severe and unrelenting disposition there, he will be forced to allow that he was brutish, and a stranger to all humanity. * * * If anyone was not very obsequious to him in his language, and would not confess himself to be his slave, or but seemed to think of any innovation in his government, he was not able to contain himself, but prosecuted his very kindred and friends and punished them as if they were enemies; and this wickedness he undertook out of a desire that he might be himself alone honored. * * * A man he was of great barbarity towards all men equally, and a slave to his passion; but above the consideration of what was right.—Josephus. 5. Last Illness of Herod.—But now Herod's distemper greatly increased upon him after a severe manner, and this by God's judgment upon him for his sins; for a fire glowed in him slowly, which did not so much appear to the touch outwardly, as it augmented his pains inwardly; for it brought upon him a vehement appetite to eating, which he could not avoid to supply with one sort of food or other. His entrails were exulcerated, and the chief violence of his pain lay on his colon; an aqueous and transparent liquor also had settled itself upon his feet; * * * and when he sat upright, he had a difficulty of breathing which was very loathsome, on account of the stench of his breath, and the quickness of his returns. He had also convulsions in all parts of his body, which increased his strength to an unsufferable degree. It was {17} {18} said by those who pretended to divine, and who were endowed with wisdom to foretell such things, that God inflicted this punishment on the king on account of his great impurity; yet was he still in hopes of recovering, though his afflictions seemed greater than anyone could bear.—Josephus. REVIEW. 1. In what year of Rome was Messiah born? 2. State the reasons for placing the date of Messiah's birth in the year of Rome 753. (See notes 1 and 2.) 3. Give the name of Messiah's birthplace. 4. For what is Ephratah noted? (Note.) 5. Who was the mother of Jesus? 6. Relate what you can of Mary, and the announcement that she should be the mother of the Son of God. 7. Relate the circumstances under which Christ was born. 8. Give an account of the visitation of the angels to the shepherds. 9. What is Canon Farrar's translation of the title of the angelic song? 10. Give an account of the magi's visit to Jerusalem in search of the Christ. 11. What signs were given of Messiah's birth to the people on the Western Hemisphere? 12. By what divine providence was Messiah's life preserved in infancy? 13. What was the character of Herod the Great? (Note 4.) 14. Describe Herod's last illness and death. (Note 5.) 15. Where did Joseph settle on his return from Egypt? 16. What prophecies were fulfilled by Messiah being taken into Egypt and Nazareth? Section II.[11] 1. State of the Religious World at Messiah's Birth.—At the time of the birth of the Son of God, the enfeebled world was tottering on its foundations. The national religions which had satisfied the parents, no longer proved sufficient for the children. The new generations could not repose contented within the ancient forms. The gods of every nation, when transported to Rome—then the dominant political power in the world—there lost their oracles, as the nations themselves had there lost their liberty. Brought face to face in the capital they had destroyed each other, and their divinity had vanished. A great void was thus occasioned in the religion of the world. 2. A kind of deism, destitute alike of spirit and of life, floated for a time above the abyss in which the vigorous superstitions of antiquity had been engulfed. But like all negative creeds it had no power to reconstruct. All nations were plunged in the grossest superstition. Most of them, indeed all except the Jews, supposed that each country and province was subjected to a set of very powerful beings whom they called gods, and whom the people, in order to live happily, must propitiate with various rites and ceremonies. These deities were supposed to differ materially from each other in sex, power, nature and offices. Some nations went beyond others in impiety of worship, but all stood chargeable with absurdity, if not gross stupidity in matters of religion. (See note 1, end of section.) 3. Thus every nation had a class of deities peculiar to itself, among which one was supposed to be pre-eminent over the rest, and was their king, though subject himself to the laws of fate, or to an eternal destiny. The oriental nations had not the same gods as the Gauls, the Germans, and the other northern nations; and the Grecian deities were essentially different from those of the Egyptians, who worshipped brute animals, plants, and various productions of nature and art. Each nation, likewise, had its own method of worshiping its gods; differing widely from the rites of other nations. But, from their ignorance or from other causes the Greeks and Romans maintained that their gods were universally worshipped; and they therefore gave the names of their own gods to the foreign deities which has caused great confusion and errors in the history of ancient religions even in the works of the learned. {19} {20} {21} 4. Heathen Toleration—Its Cause.—The variety of gods and religions in the pagan nations produced no wars or feuds among them. Each nation without concern allowed its neighbors to enjoy their own views of religion, and to worship their own gods in their own way. Nor need this tolerance greatly surprise us. For they who regard the world as divided like a great country into numerous provinces each subject to a distinct order of deities, cannot despise the gods of other nations nor think of compelling all others to pay worship to their national gods. The Romans in particular, though they would not allow the public religions to be changed or multiplied, yet gave the citizens full liberty to observe foreign religions in private, and to hold meetings and feasts and to erect temples and groves to these foreign deities, in whose worship there was nothing inconsistent with the public safety and existing laws. (See note 2, end of section.) 5. Character of Heathen Gods.—The greater part of the gods of all nations were ancient heroes, famous for their achievements and their worthy deeds; such as kings, generals and the founders of cities; and likewise females who were highly distinguished for their deeds and discoveries, whom a grateful posterity had deified. To these some added the more splendid and useful objects in the natural world, among which the sun, moon, and stars being pre-eminent, received worship from nearly all, and some were not ashamed to pay divine honors to mountains, rivers, trees, the earth, the ocean, the winds, and even to diseases, to virtues and vices, and to almost every conceivable object, or, at least, to the deities supposed to preside over these objects. 6. The worship of these deities consisted in numerous ceremonies with sacrifices, offerings, and prayers. The ceremonies, for the most part, were absurd and ridiculous; and what was worse yet, debasing, obscene and cruel. The whole pagan system had not the least efficacy to excite and cherish virtuous emotions in the soul. For in the first place, the gods and goddesses to whom the public homage was paid, instead of being patterns of virtue, were patterns rather of enormous vices and crimes. They were considered as superior to mortals in power and as exempt from death, but in all things else as on a level with man. In the next place, the ministers of this religion, neither by precept nor by example, exhorted the people to lead honest and virtuous lives, but gave them to understand that all the homage required of them by the gods was comprised in the observance of the traditional rites and ceremonies. And lastly, the doctrines inculcated respecting the rewards of the righteous and the punishments of the wicked in the future world were some of them dubious and uncertain, and others more adapted to promote vice than virtue. Hence the wiser pagans themselves, about the time of the Savior's birth, contemned and ridiculed the whole system. 7. Mysteries of Paganism.—It is contended by those who would dignify paganism, that back of its common worship, among the orientals and Greeks at least, certain recondite and concealed rites called mysteries—containing in them the essence of true religion—existed: and that back of its idolatry stood and was recognized the true God, of which the images worshiped were but the material representatives. To these mysteries, however, very few were admitted. Candidates for initiation had first to give satisfactory proof of their good faith and patience, by various most troublesome ceremonies. When initiated they could not divulge anything they had seen without exposing their lives to imminent danger. Hence the interior of these hidden rites is at this day but little known, and therefore but an imperfect judgment may be formed as to their virtue. But what glimpses are obtained of the rites of these mysteries do not prepossess one in their favor; for in many of them many things were done which are repugnant to modesty and decency, and in all of them that are known the discerning may see that the deities there worshipped were more distinguished for their vices than for their virtues. (See note 3, end of section.) 8. Paul's Arraignment of the Pagan World.—Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, brings a terrible indictment against the pagan world of his day, and also against the more ancient pagans, and avers that there was no excuse for their idolatry or wickedness: For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness; because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath showed it unto them. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts and creeping things. Wherefore God also gave them up to uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts, to dishonor their own bodies between themselves; who changed the truth of God into a lie and worshiped and served the creature more than the Creator. * * * For this cause God gave them up unto vile affections; * * * and even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient; being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers, backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, without understanding, covenant-breakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful: who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them.[12] (See note 4, end of section.) 9. Political State of the World at Messiah's Birth.—At the birth of Jesus Christ the greater part of the civilized world on the eastern hemisphere was subject to the Romans. Their remoter provinces they either ruled by means of {22} {23} {24} temporary governors and presidents sent from Rome, or suffered them to live under their own kings and laws, subject to the control of the Roman emperors. 10. The senate and people of Rome, though they had not lost all the appearance of liberty, were really under the authority of one man, Augustus; who was clothed with the titles of emperor, sovereign pontiff, censor, tribune of the people, pro-consul; in a word, with every office which conferred general power and pre-eminence in the commonwealth. 11. The Roman government, if we regard only its form and laws, was sufficiently mild and equitable. But the injustice and avarice of the nobles and provincial governors, the Roman lust of conquest and dominion, and the rapacity of the publicans who farmed the revenues of the state, brought many and grievous evils upon the people. The magistrates and publicans fleeced them of their property on the one hand, while, on the other, the Roman lust of dominion required armies to be raised in the provinces—a thing which was very oppressive to them, and the occasion of almost perpetual insurrection. This, however, is true more especially of the days which preceded the reign of Augustus [Au-gus-tus]. The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the republic. It was left for Augustus to adopt that policy which aimed merely to preserve those dominions which had been acquired by the policy of the senate, the active emulation of the consuls and the martial enthusiasm of the people. Under his reign the Roman people themselves seem to have relinquished the ambitious design of subduing the whole earth. (See note 5, end of section.) 12. This widely extended dominion of one people, or rather, of one man, was attended with several advantages: (1), it brought into union a multitude of nations differing in customs and languages; (2,) it gave freer access to the remotest nations; (3,) it gradually civilized the barbarous nations, by introducing among them the Roman laws and customs; (4), it spread literature, the arts and philosophy in countries where they were not before cultivated, and guaranteed the protection of its laws to the people even in the remotest provinces. (See note 6, end of section.) 13. Moreover, at the birth of Messiah, the Roman empire was freer from commotion that it had been for many years. Though it cannot be said that the whole world was in profound peace, yet there can be no doubt that the period when the Savior was born, if compared with the preceding times, was peculiarly peaceful—a condition quite essential to the introduction of the gospel and the extensive preaching of it. Nor is it too much to say that the Lord raised up the great Roman empire that under its beneficent yet powerful sway, the glad tidings of great joy, the gospel of Jesus Christ, might be widely preached among men. 14. Of the state of those nations which lay beyond the boundaries of the Roman empire we may not learn so much as of Rome. It is sufficient to know, however, that the Oriental nations were pressed down by a stern despotism, which their effeminacy of mind and body, and even their religion, led them to bear with patience; while the northern nations enjoyed much greater liberty, which was protected by the rigor of their climate and the consequent energy of their constitutions, aided by their mode of life. 15. Political and Religious State of the Jews.—The condition of the Jewish people among whom the Savior was born was scarcely any better than that of other nations. Herod, called the Great, then governed, or rather, oppressed the Jewish nation, though only a tributary king under the Romans. He drew upon himself universal hatred by his cruelties, jealousies and wars; and he exhausted the wealth of the unhappy nation by his mad luxury, his excessive magnificence, and his immoderate largesses. Under his administration Roman luxury and licentiousness spread over Palestine. In religion he was professedly a Jew, but he copied the manners of those who despise all religion. 16. The Romans did not wholly prohibit the Jews from retaining their national laws, and the religion established by Moses. They had their high priests, council or senate (Sanhedrim)[13], and inflicted lesser punishments. They could apprehend men and bring them before the council; and if a guard of soldiers was needful, could be assisted by them upon asking the governor for them; they could bind men and keep them in custody; the council could summon witnesses, take examinations, and when they had any capital offenders, carry them before the governor. This governor usually paid a regard to what they offered, and if they brought evidence of the fact, pronounced sentence according to their laws. He was the proper judge in all capital causes.[14] 17. The measure of liberty and comfort allowed to the Jews by the Romans was well nigh wholly dissipated, first by the cruelty and avarice of the governors, and by the frauds and rapacity of the publicans; and second, by the profligacy and crimes of those who pretended to be patriots and guardians of the nation. Their principal men, their high priests, were abandoned wretches, who had purchased their places by bribes or by deeds of iniquity, and who maintained their ill- acquired authority by every species of dishonest acts. The other priests and all who held any considerable office, were not much better. The multitude, excited by such examples, ran headlong into every sort of iniquity, and by their unceasing robberies and seditions they excited against themselves both the justice of God and the vengeance of man. 18. Religious Divisions.—Two religions may be said to have flourished in Palestine at the times of which we write; viz., the Jewish and the Samaritan; between the followers of which there was a deadly hatred. The nature of the former is set forth in the Old Testament. But in the age of the Savior it had been corrupted by the traditions of the people, who were divided into sects filled with bitterness against each other. Chief among these sects were the Pharisees [Fa-ri- {25} {26} {27} sees,] and Sadducees [Sad-du-seez.] 19. Pharisees and Sadducees.—While these two sects agreed as to a number of fundamental principles of the Jewish religion, they differed on questions of the highest importance, and such as related to the salvation of the soul. First, they disagreed respecting the law which God had given them. The Pharisees superadded to the written law an oral or unwritten law, handed down by tradition, which the Sadducees rejected, adhering alone to the written law. They differed, too, as to the import of the law. The Pharisees held to a double sense of the scripture, the one literal, the other figurative; while the Sadducees held only to the literal sense of the Bible. To these contests concerning the laws were added others on subjects of the highest moment; particularly in respect to the rewards and punishments announced in the sacred writings. The Pharisees supposed them to affect both body and spirit—in whose pre-existence and eternal existence they believed—and that punishments and rewards extended beyond the present life. The Sadducees believed in no future retributions. They were sceptical of the miraculous; and denied the existence of spiritual beings, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body. They were deists, in fact; viewing the Supreme Being as a quiescent Providence calmly surveying and ruling the regular working of natural laws. They gave themselves up to ease, luxury, self-indulgence, and were not indisposed to view with indifferent liberality the laxity of heathen morals and the profanity of idol worship. They included in their numbers the leading men of the nation, were the aristocracy in fact, while the Pharisees, on the other hand, were the common people; proud of their unblemished descent from Abraham, exclusive, formal, self-righteous, strict observers of external rites and ceremonies, even beyond the requirements of the law. 20. Such were the chief sects among the Jews. There were others but they were of minor importance. Both Sadducees and Pharisees looked for a deliverer; not, however, such a one as God had promised; but a powerful warrior and a vindicator of their national liberties, a king, a ruler. All placed the sum of religion in an observance of the Mosaic ritual, and in certain duties toward their countrymen. All excluded the rest of mankind from the hope of salvation, and, of course whenever they dared, treated them with hatred and inhumanity. To these fruitful sources of vice, must be added the various absurd and superstitious opinions concerning the Divine Nature, genii, magic, etc., which they had imbibed from surrounding nations. 21. Samaritans.—The Samaritans [Sa-mar-i-tans] were colonists sent by the king of Assyria [As-syr-rya], Shalmaneser [Shal-ma-ne-zer,] to people the land after he had carried captive the Israelites, in the latter part of the eighth century, B. C. They were a mixed people from various eastern nations, conquered by this same king—and they brought with them their various forms of national idolatry. A plague breaking out among them, however, led them to petition for a priest of the god of the country, to teach them the old form of worship. He was stationed at Bethel [Beth- el,] and the Samaritans endeavored to combine a formal reverence of God with the practice of their own idolatrous rites. After the captivity of Judah, they sought an alliance with the returned Jews (536 B. C.,) with whom they intermarried. On Ezra enforcing the Mosaic law against mixed marriages—three-quarters of a century later—Manasses [Ma-nas-ses,] a Jewish priest, who had married the daughter of Sanballat [San-bal-lat,] chief of the Samaritans, headed a secession at Shechem [Shek-em.] The Samaritans taught the Mosaic ritual and erected a rival temple to that at Jerusalem, on Mount Gerizim [Ger-i-zim]. This mixed community before the time of the Savior began to claim descent from the patriarchs and a share in the promises. Their religion was less pure than that of the Jews, as they adulterated the doctrines of the Old Testament with the profane rites of the pagan religion. 22. Such was the state of the world—such the condition of the Jews at the time of Messiah's birth; and surely that condition justified the pity and also the stern reproofs—nay, the severe rebukes administered, as we shall see, by the Son of God in the course of his ministry. NOTES. 1. State of the World at Messiah's Birth.—The world had grown old, and the dotage of its paganism was marked by hideous excesses. Atheism in belief was followed, as among all nations it has always been, by degradation of morals, iniquity seemed to have run its course to the very farthest goal. Philosophy had abrogated its boasted functions except for the favored few. Crime was universal, and there was no known remedy for the horror and ruin which it was causing in a thousand hearts. Remorse itself seemed to be exhausted, so that men were past feeling. There was a callosity of heart, a petrifying of the moral sense, which even those who suffered from it felt to be abnormal and portentous. Even the heathen world felt that "the fullness of the time" had come.—Canon Farrar. 2. Policy of Rome in Respect to Religion.—The policy of the emperors and the senate, so far as it concerned religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of the enlightened, and by the habits of the superstitious part of their subjects. The various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the people as equally true; by the philosopher as equally false; and by the magistrate as equally useful. And this toleration produced not only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. * * * Avarice and taste very frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant statues of their gods and the rich ornaments of their temples; but in the exercise of the religion which they derived from their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and even protection of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human...