Titles Available in This Series. Essentials ol English Grammar Essentials of Latin Grammar Essentials ol Russian Grammar Essentials ol Swedish Grammar French Verbs and Essentials of Grammar German Verbs and Essentials ol Grammar Italian Verbs and Essentials or Grammar Spanish Verbs and Essentials of Grammar Also Available: Handbook for Business Writing Cover design by Nick Panos This edition first published m 1991 by Passport Books A division of NTC/Contemporary Publishing Group. Inc. 4255 West Touhy Avenue. Llncotnwood (Chicago). Illinois 60712*1975 U.S.A. Copyright ©1984 by Ake Vlberg and Bökfortagel Natur och Kuttur All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored m a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of NTC/Contemporary Publishing Group. Inc. Printed in the United Stales of America International Standard Book Number: 0-0442-8539-0 01 2345678 VP9876 Preface Essentials of Swedish Grammar presents the major grammatical concepts of the Swedish language. For ease of use, the book is divided into 17 chapters organized into manageable sections, each covering a distinct point of grammar. The section number is indicated by two digits: the First (followed by a period) specifies the chapter, while the second indicates the order within the chapter. Thus, in Chapter 4, one would find sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3. and so on. Grammar rules are presented in a progressive order, showing how the language is gradually built up. To facilitate study, all grammar terms, even the most basic, are fully defined when they are first introduced. From the very beginning, users learn to form complete sentences, which they are encouraged to extend and modify in increasingly varied ways. As a further aid to the user, some grammar points are treated several times and in­ tegrated with other grammatical structures. For example, subject pronouns are dealt with in Chapter 2, object pronouns (including the reflexive sig) in Chapter 5, and the possessive pronouns in Chapter 12. Forms presented early on are generally summariz­ ed after the entire system of that structure has been covered. For instance, a brief over­ view of Swedish verb forms occurs as early as Chapter 2. The most important auxiliary verbs are treated in Chapter 6, while a systematic presentation of all verb forms occurs in Chapter 9. Care has been taken so that the most important grammar points are presented as early as possible within a chapter. As a result, users wishing to understand the salient features of a particular grammar structure may concentrate on the initial parts of a giv­ en chapter. A detailed index at the end of the book assures easy location of each item. Examples illustrating grammar concepts were chosen for their authenticity—to repre­ sent the structures most frequently encountered in Swedish speech and writing. Thus, in addition to learning the fundamental rules of the language, users will also acquire a familiarity with the style and vocabulary characteristic of modern Swedish. Essentials of Swedish Grammar is a thorough handbook that lends itself to a variety of uses. Because its basic approach is to provide simple, concise explanations, it can be used by students of varying levels, as well as by those who need a convenient reference to consult on confusing points of grammar. This book can be used for study and review, for individual or group work, as part of a refresher course, or for business, travel, or research. Essentials of Swedish Grammar is a unique and effective language tool. Its authors and the publisher are confident that this comprehensive reference will prove indispen­ sable to all those teaching and studying the language of Sweden. Contents 1 Introduction 7 5 Pronouns 31 1.1 What do you need to learn to speak a 5.1 Personal pronouns 31 new language? 7 5.2 Reflexive forms 32 1.2 Why do you have to learn grammar? 8 5.3 man 33 1.3 Sentence and clause 10 5.4 Word order in clauses with 1.4 Word forms. Endings 11 pronouns 34 2 Word classes 12 6 Commands and clauses with more than one verb 35 2.1 The verb and its forms 12 2.2 The noun and its forms 14 6.1 Two or more verbs in succession 35 2.3 Number 14 6.2 Making the infinitive from the 2.4 Definiteness 15 present 35 2.5 Gender: en words and ett words 15 6.3 Some common auxiliary verbs 36 2.6 Personal pronouns 16 6.4 Commands. The imperative 38 2.7 Adjectives 18 6.5 Commands, requests and politeness 2.8 Adverbs 18 phrases 39 2.9 Prepositions 19 6.6 Word order in clauses with more than 2.10 Numerals 19 one verb 39 6.7 Sentence adverbials 40 3 Subject, verb and object 20 6.8 Yes/no questions with more than one verb 41 3.1 The parts of a sentence 20 6.9 Question-word questions and fronting 3.2 Subject, object and word order in with more than one verb 42 Swedish 21 3.3 Subject-verb constraint 22 7 Complex sentences 43 4 Various types of clause 23 7.1 Coordination and subordination 43 7.2 Main clause and subordinate clause 44 4.1 Clause negation: inte 23 7.3 Att clauses 45 4.2 Yes/no questions 23 7.4 Adverbial clauses 45 4.3 Question-word questions 24 7.5 Word order in subordinate clauses 47 4 4 r».-- )n words 25 7.6 Relative clauses 48 r part of the sentence: adverbials 27 4.6 Fronting 28 4.7 Short answers 29 4 8 Pronunciation and 10 Forms of the noun 81 spelling 49 10.1 En words and ett words 81 Vowels and consonants 49 10.2 Definiteness 82 8.1 8.2 How sounds in language are made. 10.3 Use of the definite and indefinite Voiced and voiceless sounds 49 forms 83 8.3 Length and stress 50 10.4 Countable and uncountable nouns 84 8.4 Acute and grave accent 51 10.5 The plural forms of nouns 84 8.5 Swedish long vowels 52 10.6 Plural forms: suffixes 87 8.6 Swedish short vowels 53 10.7 Nouns that change their vowels in the 8.7 Pronunciation of ö and ä before r 54 plural 88 8.8 Pronunciation of the letter o 54 10.8 The definite form in the plural 88 8.9 Swedish consonants 55 10.9 Plurals: summary 90 8.9.1 Swedish stops 55 10.10 The genitive 90 8.9.2 Swedish fricatives 56 8.10 Other consonants 57 11 Adjectival agreement 91 Consonant combinations 57 8.11 8.12 Letters combined with j pronounced 11.1 The adjective and the noun phrase 91 as one sound 58 11.2 Articles and adjectives in the indefi­ 8.13 Pronunciation of the letters g, k and nite form 92 sk before front vowels 58 11.3 Articles and adjectives in the definite 8.14 Pronunciation of the consonant com­ form 93 binations rt, rd, rn and rs 59 11.4 Articles and adjectives in the plural 94 8.15 Doubled consonants 60 11.5 Predicative adjectives 95 8.16 Doubling of m and n 61 11.6 Summary of the forms of the 8.17 Capital and small letters 62 adjective 96 11.7 The adjective liten 96 11.8 Agreement of the participles 96 9 The verb and its forms 64 11.9 The t form of the past participle and 9.1 The perfect and the pluperfect 64 of certain adjectives 97 9.2 The future 65 11.10 The inflection of certain participles 9.3 How to make the verb forms 66 and adjectives 99 9.4 The infinitive 67 9.5 The supine 68 12 Possessive pronouns and 9.6 The present 68 the genetive 100 9.7 The past 69 9.8 Strong verbs 69 12.1 Possessive pronouns 100 9.9 Short verbs 71 12.2 The reflexive form of possessive pro­ 9.10 Irregular verbs 72 nouns: sin 100 9.11 The passive 73 12.3 The forms of possessive pronouns 101 9.12 Making the s form of verbs 74 12.4 The forms of nouns and adjectives 9.13 The participle forms of the verb 75 after genitives and possessives 103 9.14 The present participle 77 9.15 The past participle 77 9.16 Verbs with two objects 78 9.17 Verbs with particles 79 5 13 Some more determiners 104 16 Subordinate clauses and infinitive constructions 133 13.1 den här and den där 104 13.2 vilken 105 16.1 The infinitive marker att 133 13.3 någon 106 16.2 Att clauses and the infinitive as sub­ 13.4 inte någon - ingen 107 ject 135 13.5 all, hel, annan, sådan and other deter­ 16.3 Important verbs followed by an att miners 109 clause or the infinitive as object 138 16.4 Indirect questions 142 14 Comparison. Comparative 16.5 Indirect yes/no questions 142 and superlative 113 16.6 Indirect question-word questions 143 16.7 Relative clauses 144 14.1 General comments on comparison 113 16.8 Isolated prepositions 146 14.2 The comparative form of the adjective 115 14.3 The superlative forms of the 17 Cleft and existential adjective 116 sentences 148 14.4 Adjectives that end in er, el ox en 117 14.5 Irregular adjectives 117 17.1 The cleft sentence 148 14.6 Making the comparative and the 17.2 The existential sentence 150 superlative with mer and mest 119 17.3 When can you use the existential sen­ 14.7 Adverbs. Words denoting degree, tence? 151 quantity and number 120 15 Expressions of place. Index 153 Position and direction 121 15.1 här and där 121 Appendices 15.2 Verbs denoting position 122 15.3 Prepositions denoting position 124 The Swedish Alphabet 158 15.4 Prepositions denoting direction 126 Numbers 159 15.5 Some important verbs of motion 127 15.6 Verbs corresponding to ‘put’ 129 15.7 Preposition of position instead of preposition of direction 130 15.8 Particles 131 15.9 ‘Pojken sprang in i husetlut ur huset' 132 6 Introduction .1 What do you need to learn to speak a new language? There are many different things you have to learn before you can speak a new language. What most people think of first is, of course, all the new words, the vocabulary (ordförråd). A great many Swedish words are very similar to English words. First, there are all the everyday words that English and Swedish have as a common heritage from the old Germanic languages, words like finger, hand, syster, son, katt, and norr, and many of the numbers, days of the week and so on. Second, there are a large number of modern international words that are more or less identical in Swedish and English: hotell, bank, television, politik, sport, fotboll, film, radio and so on. In fact there are so many Swedish and English words that look the same or nearly the same that you can understand some Swedish texts without know­ ing any Swedish at all. But the pronunciation is usually different, and anyway there are many Swedish words that are not the same in English, so learning vocabulary will take you a long time. Sometimes you can guess the meaning of a word from its form or its context, but not always. So you will need to get a dictionary (ordbok), so that you can look up new words and check their meaning and pronunciation. It will also be well worth your while to keep a special vocabulary book (glosbok) in which you note down new words and their equivalents in English as you come across them. When you speak, the words you say are made up of sounds (ljud). For example, with the sounds b e d you make the word ‘bed’. Many of the Swedish sounds are easy to learn because they are the same or almost the same as in English - sounds like b, d, f, k, I, m, n, p, s, t, v and,a few more. Other sounds, however, such as most of the vowels and a few consonants, are different. Learning the pronunciation (uttal) of these new sounds is part of the business of learning Swedish. Another problem is spelling (stavning) and the alphabet (alfabet). You will find the letters of the Swedish alphabet on the inside front cover. Normally a letter corresponds to one sound only, but there are a number of exceptions to this principle. For example, the letters c and z represent the same sound as the letter s, which is the one most frequently used. (In loan words and names c sometimes represents the same sound as k: calypso, Carin, Carlsson, etc.) Some sounds, for example, do not have their own letter; they are spelt by using a combination of letters, such as th in English. The combinations sj or skj in Swedish represent one sound, a sound fairly similar to the sound represented by sh in English. This Swedish sound occurs at the beginning of 7 words like: sjal shawl skjorta shirt Besides practising the pronunciation of the new sound, you will also have to learn what letter combinations are used to represent it when you write. There are also two very important features of pronunciation in Swedish which are not marked in writing: length (längd) and stress (betoning). As they are not indicated in writing, there is a risk that you will neglect them. But they are fundamental to a good Swedish pronunciation, so read particu­ larly carefully 8.3, where you will find these features explained in detail. But to help you now, here is a short explanation of what is meant by length. Length refers to the fact that a vowel sound in Swedish can be either short or long. (See the explanation in 8.3.) In the first of the following Swedish words the i sound is long, in the second it is short: sil sieve sill herring To help you learn the pronunciation of new words, special marks may be used to tell you when a vowel is short or long. Such marks are used in certain sections of this grammar, but they are never used in normal written Swedish. A long vowel is marked with a dash (_) under the vowel, and a short vowel with a dot (.), thus: sil sjll A distinction is made between short and long vowels in Swedish only when the vowel is stressed. The meaning of the words stress and vowel is given in the chapter on pronunciation, 8. We suggest that you read 8.1-8.3 as soon as you have read the next few sections on grammar (grammatik). To speak a new language you need to learn how words are put together to make sentences. That is what is described in grammar (grammatik). 1.2 Why do you have to learn grammar? Imagine a simple situation when you want to say something in Swedish. You are in a small Swedish town you have never visited before and you can’t find any of the places you want to go to. Let’s imagine that the town has a bank, a post office, a railway station, a hospital and so on. If you can’t find the way to the bank, you can ask a passer-by: Var är banken? Where is the bank? What do you have to know to be able to ask a question like that in Swedish? You could, of course, learn the whole phrase Var är banken?, but if you go about it that way, you will have to learn a fantastically large number of phrases. However, if you compare our first question with the following ones, you will see that they are all alike: 8 Var är posten? Where is the post office? Var är toaletten? Where is the toilet? Var är torget? Where is the market square? Var är skolan? Where is the school? Just as in English, all the questions are made up of a number of words, in English four or five words, in Swedish three. You can translate the questions almost word for word: (Var är banken?) var=where, är=is, banken=the bank. The word var ‘where’ is a question word or q-word (frågeord). Other question words are när ‘when’ and vem ‘who’: När är det? When is that? Vem är Olof Palme? Who is Olof Palme? To be able to construct a question correctly in Swedish, it is not enough just to know the words. You also have to be able to put them in the right order. This is called word order (ordföljd). Word order is very important in Swedish and it is not always the same as in English. In our examples above, however, the word order is the same in both languages. Not all questions contain the word är ‘is’. Here are some other possible questions: När somnar Kalle? When does Kalle fall asleep? När vaknar Kalle? When does Kalle wake up? Var arbetar Kalle? Where does Kalle work? Var bor Kalle? Where does Kalle live? The words which replace är in the Swedish sentences are all of the same kind. They are called verbs (verb). Most verbs say what someone does or what happens. So we can make a rule about Swedish that says that the question word always comes first, provided there is a question word. Then the verb must always follow, directly. You can see this in a simple word- order diagram: Q-WORD VERB När somnar Kalle? When does Kalle fall asleep? Var bor Kalle? Where does Kalle live? Vem är Olof Palme? Who is Olof Palme? Make questions yourself about some other people with the help of the following question words and verbs. (You can think of the names yourself.) Question words: var ‘where’, när ‘when’, vem ‘who’, vad ‘what’. Verbs: dansar ‘dance’, sjunger ‘sing’, äter ‘eat’, dricker drink’, skriver ‘write’, läser ‘read’. 9 Here are some of the questions you can make: Vad dricker Kalle? What does Kalle drink (is Kalle drinking)? Var dansar Kalle? Where does Kalle dance (is Kalle dancing)? If you put in other names instead of Kalle, you can, with the help of this simple rule, make many hundreds of questions. That is typical of the most important grammar rules: they tell you how to construct a virtually unlimited number of new utterances of the type that are called, in grammatical terms, sentences (meningar) and clauses (satser). Sentence and clause When you speak or write, your words are grouped together in sequences of larger units called sentences (meningar) and clauses (satser). In writing, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark: Sven sköt en björn. Sven shot a bear. Vem sköt en björn? Who shot a bear? Skjut en björn! Shoot a bear! . punkt (full stop) ? frågetecken (question mark) ! utropstecken (exclamation mark) In straightforward examples like this the sentence is also a clause. In fact, it is the clause that is the smallest natural unit which is composed of words. So a sentence always consists of at least one clause. The fact that there is a difference between clause and sentence is illustrated by the fact that you can put several clauses together to make a sentence with the help of little words like och ‘and’, men ‘but’ and att ‘that’: One clause and one sentence Lisa arbetar. Lisa works. Sven sover. Sven sleeps. Two clauses and one sentence Lisa arbetar och Sven sover. Lisa works and Sven sleeps. Lisa säger, att Sven sover. Lisa says that Sven sleeps. The comma (kommatecken) is used in Swedish, as in English, in lists, but never before the words och ‘and’, eller ‘or’, etc. (See 7.3 and 7.4 for use of the comma in sub-clauses.) Mona, Peter, Eva och Mona, Peter, Eva and Per bor här. Per live here. Peter får skjuta en björn, Peter may shoot a bear, en varg eller en älg. a wolf or a moose.