ESSENTIAL LEADERSHIP SKILLS NEEDED TO RESPOND EFFECTIVELY IN THE AFTERMATH OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS A descriptive review Ernest Aluoch Thesis, Fall 2015 Diaconia University of Applied Sciences Master’s Degree in Global Health Care Master of Social and health care ABSTRACT Disaster response phase is arguably the most intricate phase, in the entire disaster management processes. This is due to the fact that, leadership functions in this phase are discharged under extreme stress conditions, without ample time to think and consult before making decisions, constrained by inadequate information. While responding emergencies, leaders are judged from their actions and in actions. Leaders are expected to take charge of the situation, mitigate the effects of the disaster, while being decisive in the midst of anxiety, confusion and chaos. Leaders are expected to be vision oriented, guide the public to safety, while reducing the risks, and navigate through to the murky fields, to the path of recovery and normalcy. This literature review, sought to identify and explore existing literature, on disaster leadership, with a view of identifying the essential leadership skills that are needed by leaders, to effectively respond in the aftermath of manmade disaster. The review intends to explore challenges that these leaders face, with a view of improving disaster response leadership. A descriptive literature review method, was adopted for this review. It followed four main stages that included problem identification, literature search, data analysis using both descriptive analysis and thematic analysis methods to synthesise the review literature, and finally discussion and presentation of the essential leadership skills. The review identified 15 articles that qualified for the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Key essential leadership skills identified in this review included Insightfulness, decisiveness, communication, networking, accountability, and learning. Findings from this study provided not only an overview of leadership skills needed to face challenges, but also the challenges that these leaders face, with a view of equating the challenges with appropriate skill needed to respond. In conclusion, it is important to note that the outcomes of this descriptive review, demonstrated the importance of leadership skill, for leaders whom are responding in the aftermath of manmade disasters. The success of the disaster response phase, are greatly tied to the leaders having the right skills and putting them into practice when needed. However, while dynamics of manmade disaster leadership continue to shift, the future focus will no longer be only on leadership skills that the leaders have, but on organizational structures and cultures, that affects to a greater extent, the bearing and quality of leadership performance in disaster response phase. Key words: Leadership, Disaster, Disaster response leadership, manmade disaster, Technological Disaster, Leadership skills, Crisis Leadership. CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 5 2 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK OF DISASTER RESPONSE LEADERSHIP ... 8 2.1 Overview of leadership in disaster response phase .................................. 8 2.2 Leadership theories ................................................................................. 12 2.3 Why leaders need essential skills ............................................................ 15 2.4 Definition of key disaster response leadership terms .............................. 17 3. AIMS AND REVIEW QUESTION .................................................................. 20 3.1 Review question ...................................................................................... 20 3.2 Aims ........................................................................................................ 20 4. METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 21 4.1 Design ..................................................................................................... 21 4.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria ................................................................ 24 4.3 Data collection strategy and databases ................................................... 25 4.4 Data collection outcomes ........................................................................ 29 4.5 Analysis of review literature ..................................................................... 33 5. RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 35 5.1 Description of studies used in the review ................................................ 35 5.2 Key themes representing leadership skills and challenges identified ...... 37 5.2.1 Insightful ........................................................................................... 37 5.2.2 Decisive ............................................................................................ 39 5.2.3 Communication ................................................................................. 42 5.2.4 Networking ........................................................................................ 45 5.2.5 Accountability .................................................................................... 47 5.2.6 Learning ............................................................................................ 48 6. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 50 6.1 Discussion of the results .......................................................................... 50 6.2 Ethics, validity and limitations of the review ............................................. 54 7. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ......................................................... 58 REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 60 APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 69 APPENDIX 1. Databases selected and search result APPENDIX 2. Search Results APPENDIX 3. Description of the studies used in the review FIGURE 1. Summary of the main literature review processes FIGURE 2. Flow chart for identifying eligible articles. FIGURE 3. Summary of literature types used in the review 1. INTRODUCTION In the contemporary disaster response phase, Leadership performance both in public and private circles undergo deeper scrutiny in the wake of disaster. Their skills and performance to guide the response phase, is thoroughly tested right from the onset of the disaster (Boin et al. 2013, 79-80; Marcus et al. 2014, 27- 28; Ö zerdem & Kapucu, 2013 153-154.). Never are the leadership skills much more tested and needed in disaster situation than in the response phase, and more so, in the aftermath of a manmade disaster, when leaders are responding to complex and fast changing situations.(Boin & Renaud 2013, 42; Sjoberg et al. 2011, 199-200 .) Disasters have the capabilities to override and destroy the local emergency response systems that have been put in place in disaster planning phase. A leader’s response to a disaster, can either be the much needed help and rescue, that reduces the effects of the disaster for the victims and the affected populations, that set them to the path of recovery, or it can be the catalyst that escalate and make the conditions worse, making them even more vulnerable. This depends on the leader’s skills, character, and actions in disaster response phase (Sweeny et al 2011, 22; Ö zerdem & Kapucu, 2013, 154.). While responding emergencies, leaders are judged from their actions and in actions. Leaders are expected to take charge of the situation, mitigate the effects of the disaster, while being decisive in the midst of anxiety, confusion and chaos. Leaders are expected to be vision oriented, guide the public to safety, while reducing the risks, and navigate through to the murky fields, to that of normalcy (Christensen et al. 2013; Demiroz and Kapucu 2012, 92.). Research on leadership skills in disaster response phase, has not been explored in detail, as compared to those of leadership styles that are essential in disaster response management. A growing school of research (McCarthy 2014, 55; Hahm et al.2013, 178 -187; Wheeler et al. 2013, 79- 80; Demiroz and Kapucu 2012, 91; Ö zerdem & Kapucu, 2013,154.), have pinpointed the need 6 for leaders who engage in disaster response, to have the essential leadership skills, that will enable them to respond effectively in the aftermath of manmade disasters. A study conducted by the Consortium of British Humanitarian Agencies (CBHA) in 2010, in around 15 humanitarian based organizations, that provided relief assistance in the wake of disaster, on their views on what competencies or skills they felt were critical for a disaster response employee or leaders, to provide effective response, the following skills were deemed as essential, they included decision making, critical judgement, resilience and personal awareness. (CBHA, 2011, 4-6) Much of the contemporary literature on disaster and emergency leadership in disaster response phase, agrees that, there is a need for leaders to poses the right skills needed to respond and lead in the aftermath of manmade disasters (McCarthy 2014, 55; Hahm et al.2013, 178 -187; Wheeler et al. 2013, 79- 80; Demiroz and Kapucu 2012, 91; Ö zerdem & Kapucu, 2013, 154.). This has been attributed to the challenges these leaders face, the failures and lessons leaders have learnt while responding to recent string of disaster globally. Manmade disaster, have become a daily occurrence or part of life in our societies or communities today. Going by the recent examples of manmade disaster such the terrorist attack on the 13th November 2015 at the Paris night club Bataclan club, café and football stadium, killing 130 people, wounding 352 and about 99 in critical condition (CNN 2015).The China's Tianjin industrial explosion on the 12th of August, 2015 that killed over 50 people and wounded many (CNBC news, 2015). The recent stampede in mecca killing over 1000 people on a pedestrian street on the 2nd of July, 2015( New York times, 2015), which are just but a few examples of manmade disaster that the global community have experienced, it opens our eyes on the diversity of challenges leaders need to handle. 7 This list of disasters is endless, and goes as far as highlighting the destruction and loss of lives and property resulting from manmade disasters. However, given the magnitude of these occurrence, it is perturbing that, limited research has been carried out to unravel the concept of leadership skills that leaders need to mount an effective disaster response. Thus, this review process therefore, intended to fill the void in literature, by unwarping the core fabric of leadership disaster response, to unleash these essential leadership skills that are needed by leaders at all levels, to respond effectively in the aftermath of manmade disasters. The focus on manmade disasters, is due to the fact that, leaders are able to learn from them and improve their performance. This review, has been is organized in seven key chapters that explore the various facets of leadership in dis-aster response context, and the processes and methodologies that are involved throughout these review. The purpose of leadership that the review will focus on, will be the ability of the leaders to provide leadership, gauged by the standard by which their intervention, or action taken are able to accomplish the target of disaster response phase, which is that of saving lives and property, mobilizing resources, and setting path to recovery and normalcy. (Kahn 2012; Damon 2015) 8 2 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK OF DISASTER RESPONSE LEADERSHIP This chapter, shades more light on disaster leadership, based on literature gathered from other sources, that explores the concept of disaster leadership. The various facets of disaster response leadership are introduced here. It brings into play, the key definitions of core terms that the review focuses on, while exploring the leadership theories, and how they have developed through time. The chapter further, brings forth the reasons why leaders need these skills to effectively respond to the aftermath of manmade disaster, based on the challenges that disaster pose on a leader’s response capabilities. Leadership in disaster response phase is explained in further details here, in an attempt to deepen the understanding of the whole concept of the review. 2.1 Overview of leadership in disaster response phase Leadership according to Buchanan-Smith and Scriven (2011, 4), is the most explored subject in the business field that is now developing tentacles in humanitarian and disaster research world. Buchanan-Smith and Scriven (2011, 5), further points out the fact that most the humanitarian interventions globally, do not succeed due to ineffective leadership. This has been portrayed as gap of effective leadership in humanitarian and relief response. This is seen as an impediment in the humanitarian action and disaster response globally. Leadership has been defined as the ability to guide and motivate individuals, groups or communities to achieve a specified goal, by guiding them and providing focus and inspiration. Leadership is not a preserve of those at the top but can be practiced by anyone with the right skills (DuBrin, 2010, 3.) 9 Disaster response phase, involves marshalling the needed emergency services and first responders to the disaster scene. The first responders are usually the heart of emergency service in any community or setting, and involves the ambulance, police and firefighters. In some response cases, rescue teams may be accompanied the first responders. (Singh 2008, 12-14.) According to Kahn (2012) and Damon (2015), disaster response is carried out in two stages. The first involves responding to the disaster as it unfolds and responding to restore normalcy. This involves gathering the response team that will put the response plan into action. The next step is to roll the plan out into action and assess the safety and risks of those affected by the disaster and the populations around them. This is essential in taking steps towards recovery. The third steps involves the traditional rescue and salvaging what remains after the disaster and the mobilization of resource to build a capacity, with the intentions of saving lives, property Veenema (2012, 6), adds that, for the disaster response to be successful, the response plan should be made clear, and easy to understand and follow. The response plan needs to have at least an incident command system put in place and that these plans need to be continuously rehashed and adjustments made. Daily and Powers (2010, 353- 354), further adds that, the main features of disaster response, involves four main distinct aspects. This includes search and rescue that is performed by the first responders at the scene, whom are usually the local populations or teams close to the place where the disaster strikes. The second future involves carrying out triage, whereby the victims are grouped or categorized according to the level of fatality or seriousness of injuries. Those with serious injuries are given immediate medical attention. The third characteristic in disaster response involves stabilization and providing care to the victims. The fourth aspect in disaster response, is that of rescue, where victims of the disaster are moved to safety. (Daily & Powers 2010, 354- 356.) 10 Boin et al, (2008, 8), explain that, leaders in disaster situation, are faced with three main type of challenges. The first challenge is usually the emergency response in the aftermath of a disaster, the challenge here involves dealing with handling the victims and psychological challenges, the logistical challenges, and the institutions that are involved in the disaster response. The second challenge for the leaders in the aftermath of disaster, is the media, thanks to the nature of global communication network. When disaster strikes, media usually get hooked on the unfolding events all around the clock, reporting the response to the disaster, with leaders expected to give an up-to-date account of the progress and decision they make as the events unfolds. The global internet village, has also made communication easier and quicker, thus the response to the disaster can be accessed worldwide. Thus, leaders tend to receive lots of criticism and support from the various communication media. (Boin et al, 2008, 8.) The third type of challenge according to Boin et al, (2008, 8), in the response phase for the leaders, comes from the government policies and the rules and regulations that govern the given area where the disaster occurs. Leaders usually have to deal with the legal and policy repercussion that come with the disaster. This often continue to the later phases and stages of disaster management. The effectiveness of disaster response, depends on several other factors come into play in disaster response phase. This includes the actions and decisions by actors within the response fraternity such as the media, non- governmental organizations, victims, and all the stakeholders. (Boin et al 2008, 8.) Beckett (2014, 2-7), suggests that the response operations, should be carried out based on the core principle of partnership, working together, adapting, with a clear unity of purpose flexibility and command, for an effective tiered response. While understanding the risks and vulnerabilities the response fraternity face at all levels.