ESL Stage A1 Teacher Support Material for lower primary new arrivals Adapted from ESL Essentials Published for the LOTE, ESL and Multicultural Education Branch, School Programs Division, by the Community Information Service, Department of Education, Employment and Training, GPO Box 4367, Melbourne, Vic. 3001, Australia. 2000 The Department of Education, Employment and Training welcomes any use of this publication within the constraints of the Copyright Act. Provided acknowledgment is made to the source, Victorian government and nongovernment schools are permitted to copy material freely for the purpose of teaching students in schools, or for communication with parents and others in the community. When a charge is authorised for supplying material, such charge shall be limited to direct costs only. When the material is sold for profit, then written authority must first be obtained. Address inquiries to: The Manager Copyright Services GPO Box 4367, Melbourne Vic. 3001, Australia. ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 Acknowledgments Writer and project manager: Janet Saker Many ESL specialists contributed to the writing of this publication. Particular thanks are due to: Valerie Astbury Ros Beaton Stephanie Bekas Daina Coles Dina Guest John Ingamells Pam Luizzi Fran Luke Catherine McMahon Dorothy Sotiriou Adapted from ESL Essentials, Directorate of School Education, Victoria, 1992 ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 Contents Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The ESL Companion to the English Curriculum and Standards Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The A stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Links with the English CSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Principles of English language learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Implications for Stage A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The learning context at Stage A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 English language schools/centres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Mainstream schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Finding out about learner background – sociolinguistic profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Educational background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Gathering student information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Language and learning information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Chapter 2: The development of communication in English in the young ESL learner . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Second-language acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Interlanguage development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Expressive and receptive English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Linguistic difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The ‘silent period’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Recycling of English. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Language models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Listening and speaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Using the first language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Beginning reading and writing in English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 A ‘language experience’ approach to teaching English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Incorporating learning technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Using computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Assessing the suitability of computer programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Chapter 3: Stage A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Moving through Stage A1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Settling in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Implications for teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 At the beginning of the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 As students progress through Stage A1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Additional classroom support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 PAGE 4 • ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 Stage A1 – students from a preliterate background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Student characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Settling in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Initial assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Implications for teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Routines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Supporting parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Bilingual teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Chapter 4: Teaching content for Stage A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 English language teaching content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Planning goals and objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Chapter 5: Curriculum design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The long-term program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Units of work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Daily diary or work program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Unit examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Chapter 6: Student assessment and program evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Assessing English and the KLAs other than English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Assessing English language development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Assessing through the ESL Companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Profiling using the ESL Companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Making an on-balance judgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 The CSF and the ESL Companion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Validation of assessment on the ESL Companion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Assessment of the KLAs other than English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Assessment strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Chapter 7: Example units of work and forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Example units of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Assessment forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Bibliography and resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Professional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Teacher resource books and classroom materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 • PAGE 5 Chapter 1: Introduction T he Victorian English-as-a-second-language (ESL) Teacher Support Materials aim to assist teachers in implementing the ESL Companion to the English Curriculum and Standards Framework. They also aim to support teachers in thinking about ESL development in the school context, and to design appropriate programs for ESL learners. Teacher Support Materials were previously known as Course Advice. ESL Essentials deals with the A1 Beginner stage of the ESL Companion, which covers lower primary students, from Prep. to Year 2, who are new to learning English. The materials have been developed for those teachers working with students in the lower primary years who are new to learning English. A young child starting school in Australia with little or no prior experience of English has to become familiar with not only a new language, but also with school itself, with its culture and expectations, as well as with the task of becoming literate in English. At the same time, students are expected to learn through the new language, in the key learning areas (KLAs). ESL students essentially have to learn more in the same amount of time as their English speaking background (ESB) peers. The implications this has for schools and teachers providing programs for these students are profound, for if student needs are not recognised and catered for in the early years, the impact this may have on their later learning and on their chances of success at school can be immense. This document is intended to give guidance to all teachers who are involved in the education of such learners, including: • ESL teachers in schools • ESL teachers in English-language schools and centres • classroom teachers of ESL learners • school principals • Early Years Literacy Program coordinators • Reading Recovery teachers • teachers in specialist programs. The organisation of this document: Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 The development of communication in the young ESL learner Chapter 3 Stage A1 Chapter 4 Teaching content for Stage A1 Chapter 5 Curriculum design Chapter 6 Student assessment and program evaluation Chapter 7 Units of work PAGE 6 • ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 The ESL Companion to the English Curriculum and Standards Framework The achievements and learning outcomes of students learning English as a second language will initially be different from those students who are learning English as a first language. This means that the kind of classroom support these students need at the early stages of ESL learning will also be different. This has been recognised by the Victorian Board of Studies (BOS), which publishes the ESL Companion to the English Curriculum and Standards Framework as a supplement to the English Curriculum and Standards Framework (CSF). The ESL Companion provides teachers with: • a framework for describing broad stages of ESL development as students move towards the learning outcomes expressed in the CSF • student learning outcomes and likely indicators of achievement at the end of each stage of ESL development • a curriculum focus at each stage of ESL development, describing the kinds of classroom focus and learning context that ESL students need in order to learn English, and to learn through English. The ESL Companion does not attempt to provide schools with information at the program level, but describes a framework within which schools can English Curriculum develop their own programs to suit and Standards their own students. However, the Framework information provided assists teachers in thinking about the scope of their programs for their ESL learners, and Middle whether or not such programs allow Secondary Levels 6 for students to reach the learning and 7 outcomes outlined. It can be used as S4 the basis of a ‘curriculum audit’, Lower through which teachers can review Secondary their current programs to ensure that Level 5 the learning outcomes can be achieved S3 through implementing it. Middle/ upper The A stages Primary B3 Levels 3 and 4 The ESL Companion describes two stages of ESL development for students who are in the lower primary S2 years: Stage A1 for beginning Lower students of English, and Stage A2 for B2 Primary Levels 1 those who are beyond the initial A2 and 2 phases of learning English. Stage A1 has been shaded on the ESL S1 (Beginner) B1 Companion diagram opposite. (Beginner) SL (Preliterate) BL A1 (Preliterate) (Beginner) Secondary Primary Lower Middle Lower Upper Middle Primary ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 • PAGE 7 Moving through the A Stages Ideally, lower primary students will progress through Stages A1 and A2 as they develop increasing competence in communicating in English and an ability to function in increasingly complex learning situations and activities. Students who begin their ESL learning at Year 1 or 2, rather than at Prep. are likely to move from Stage A1 to B1 or B2 as they move from Year 2 into Year 3. Students who are at Stage A2 as they move from Year 2 to Year 3 are likely to be assessed at Stage B2 or B3 on the ESL Companion. The age of students will also influence the way in which the outcomes and indicators of the ESL Companion are interpreted. Achievement of outcomes in reading and writing, for example, will vary between students of Prep. age and students of Year 2 age. The latter are likely to develop more sophisticated understandings and skills, and often at a faster rate due to their maturity. Older students are also likely to be able to write longer texts, and the strategies they use are likely to be more complex, possibly due to their prior experiences with literacy in their first language. Many different factors influence the rate at which students move through the stages. These different rates of progress depend on factors such as: • age • personality • ability • confidence and motivation • prior learning experiences • linguistic distance of the first language from English • sociocultural distance of the first culture from the culture in Australia • amount and quality of ESL support • extent of support from home. It is also important to understand that the English language proficiency of students may appear to change as students move between different learning settings, for example, between schools and intensive English language programs or from ESL classes to mainstream classes. The demands of different programs or settings and the effect these may have on apparent proficiency need to be taken into account when the English-language learning of Stage A1 beginners is being assessed. Stage A1 Students who begin their English language learning at Stage A1 will be a diverse group. Perhaps the most important factors that will impinge upon students learning at this early stage is how much experience they have had with literacy and their and their families’ expectations of school. Students are likely to fall into two basic groups: those who have had literacy experiences in their first language, and those who come from a preliterate or low literate background. The A1 stage of the ESL Companion has been written to encompass both of these groups. A1 students with a preliterate background The characteristics and learning needs of students with a preliterate background are described in Chapter 3. Students from preliterate backgrounds should really be considered as being in a substage of Stage A1. The learning needs of these students will differ markedly from those students who are beginning their English language learning with a background in literacy understandings in their first language, and with expectations of school that match their early experiences at school. PAGE 8 • ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 This group will include students who may: • have little or no prior educational experiences in their first language, e.g. have not attended kindergarten • come from cultures that do not have a tradition of literacy. The following table shows the learning outcomes for Stage A1 students. Stage A1 learning outcomes Learning outcome Communication Contextual Linguistic Strategies understanding structures and features Speaking and Communicate in Show initial Show understanding Use some basic listening English in routine understanding that of simplified English communication and social and classroom English changes in familiar contexts learning strategies to situations, using according to context and controlled participate and sustain learned formulas, and audience, and exchanges, using interaction in well-rehearsed modify own learned formulas or everyday playground patterns, short, simple communication in short telegraphic and classroom utterances and response to different utterances. routines and non-verbal language, contexts. activities. understanding controlled English supported by immediate and known contexts. Reading Share meaning from Show understanding Show understanding Model own reading simple visual and that print encodes that print conveys on shared classroom written texts in meaning and that consistent meanings reading and focus on structured reading written texts have a through symbols and intonation, repetition activities and through structure and a conventions, and illustrations to their own engagement purpose. recognising some enhance with reading texts. basic features of understanding and books and print enjoyment of texts. organisation. Writing Communicate ideas, Demonstrate early Write simple texts Model own writing on events and awareness that written using copied or shared writing experiences through texts in English are formulaic English, or activities or published drawings, copied presented according models based on texts, and use some writing or own to certain conventions spoken repertoire, and basic strategies to writing. which change showing some basic convey information in according to context writing conventions. writing. and purpose. Links with the English CSF The outcomes of the English CSF will eventually be the goal for all ESL learners. Once a student clearly fits the end-of-stage descriptions for Stage A2, they will then most likely be moving towards the age-appropriate level of the English CSF (either Level 1 or Level 2, depending on the year level of the student), and these descriptions will become increasingly appropriate in describing their English language learning. ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1 • PAGE 9 Principles of English language learning Beliefs held about ESL learning and how it is fostered in the classroom will have a direct effect on the kinds of programs that are developed for Stage A1 students, and on the kinds of curriculum decisions that are made for them. The beliefs that underpin the ESL Companion and this ESL document are summarised below. ESL learners learn best when the language input is relevant to their individual needs, interests and understandings. Teachers need to: • recognise that students bring a first language to the learning of a new language, and this provides the basis for their learning of the second language • help learners make links between what they already know and new concepts and knowledge • plan for the sharing of knowledge and experiences of all students • choose resources that are culturally sensitive and accessible • create an atmosphere that is receptive to, and tolerant of, cultural similarities and differences. ESL learners learn English best when they are provided with opportunities to communicate in authentic school and social contexts. Teachers need to: • encourage all students to participate actively and to take risks in language use • provide a wide range of learning activities using different groupings, situations and teaching strategies • provide opportunities for students to produce and respond to spoken and written text • provide opportunities for students to use English in authentic contexts so that they may gain an awareness of how purpose and audience influence language choices. ESL learners learn English best when they are aware of the reflective use of language and the role and nature of English. Teachers need to: • create an awareness in students that oral language use can vary according to the audience and the purpose • create an awareness in students of different approaches to writing for different purposes and for different audiences • provide opportunities for students to develop the language to think and talk about language. PAGE 10 • ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE • Stage A1